Biolistic® Gene Gun The word “biolistic” was coined from the words “biological” and “ballistic” (pertaining to a projectile fired from a gun). Used to shoot pellets that are coated with genes (for desired traits) into plant seeds or plant tissues, in order to get those plants to then express the new genes. The gun uses an actual explosive (.22 caliber blank) to propel the material. Compressed air or steam may also be used as the propellant. The Biolistic® Gene Gun was invented in 1983–1984 at Cornell University by John Sanford, Edward Wolf, and Nelson Allen. The gun and its registered trademark are now owned by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. See also WHISKERS™, “SHOTGUN”

METHOD, GENETIC ENGINEERING, GENE, BIOSEEDS,

MICROPARTICLES.

Biological Activity The effect (change in metabolic activity upon living cells) caused by specific compounds or agents. For example, the drug aspirin causes the blood to thin, i.e., to clot less easily. See also BIOASSAY, PHAR-

MACOPHORE, RETINOIDS.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The oxygen used in meeting the metabolic needs of aerobic organisms in water containing organic compounds. Numerically, it is expressed in terms of the oxygen consumed in water at a temperature of 68°F (20°C) during a 5-day period. The BOD is used as an indication of the degree of water pollution. See also METABOLISM.

Biological Vectors See VECTORS.

Biology From the two Greek words bios (life) and logos (word), it is the field of science encompassing the study of life. See also

GENETICS, CLADISTICS, ORGANISM, SPECIES.

Bioluminescence The enzyme-catalyzed production of light by living organisms, typically during mating or hunting. This word literally means living light. First identified/analyzed in 1947 by William McElroy, bioluminescence results when the enzyme luciferase comes into contact with adenosine triphosphate (ATP)/luciferin, inside the photophores (organs which emit the light) of the organism. Such production of light by living organisms is exemplified by fireflies, South America’s railroad worm, and by many deep

ocean marine organisms. Bioluminescence has been utilized by man as a genetic marker (e.g., to cause a genetically engineered plant

to glow as evidence that a gene was success- B fully transferred into that plant). Another use

of bioluminescence by man is for the rapid detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria (e.g., in a food processing factory). One rapid-test for bacteria uses two chemical reagents that first break down bacteria cell membranes, then cause the ATP from those broken cells to luminesce. Another rapid-test uses electrophoresis to first separate the sequences of bacteria’s DNA (following its extraction from cell and enzymatic fragmentation), then cause those separated sequences to luminesce. A camera is used to record the sequence-pattern light emission and compare that pattern to patterns of pathogenic bacteria previously stored in a database. See also

ENZYME, MARKER (GENETIC MARKER), BACTERIA,

TOXIN, PATHOGENIC, ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM

0157:H7 (E. COLI 0157:H7), CELL, LUMINESCENT ASSAY, ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP), GENETIC ENGINEERING, ELECTROPHORESIS, POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS (PAGE), SEQUENCE

(OF A DNA MOLECULE), PHOTORHABDUS LUMINESCENS RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES, NITRIC OXIDE.

Biomass All organic matter grown by the photosynthetic conversion of solar energy (e.g., plants) and organic matter from animals. See

also PHOTOSYNTHESIS, LOW-TILLAGE CROP PRO-

DUCTION, NO-TILLAGE CROP PRODUCTION.

BioMEMS Refers to MEMS designed to work within biological systems/organisms. Examples include microfluidic cell sorters, or a biochip possessing diverging nanometerscale etched channels and a fluorescence detector. Via an electrical field that would drive electrophoretic separation of DNA (fragments), samples of DNA could be separated/sorted/identified by fluorescence. See

also MEMS (NANOTECHNOLOGY), ORGANISM,

ELECTROPHORESIS, MICROFLUIDICS, CELL SORTING,

NANOMETERS (nm), FLUORESCENCE, BIOCHIP,

NANOTECHNOLOGY.

Biomimetic Materials Synthetic (man-made) molecules or systems that are analogues of natural (made by living organisms) materials.

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

For instance, molecules have been synthesized by man that act chemically like natural proteins, but are not as easily degraded by

Bthe digestive system (as are those natural protein molecules). Other systems, such as reverse micelles and/or liposomes, exhibit certain properties that mimic certain aspects

of living systems. See also PROTEIN, DIGESTION

(WITHIN ORGANISMS), REVERSE MICELLE (RM),

LIPOSOMES, ANALOGUE, BIONICS, BIOPOLYMER.

Biomolecular Electronics See BIOELECTRONICS.

Biomotors Refers to biologically based technologies/techniques used to “power” nanometer-size machines (e.g., “nanobots”) in one way or another. For example, during 2000 Bernard Yurke and colleagues created a molecular-machine “tweezers” (grasper) consisting of three separate strands of DNA (two of them were hybridized separately to small complementary sequences near the two ends of the first DNA strand). The “tweezers” can then be closed (or opened) by sequentially adding other DNA strands (to the three) which can hybridize to small complementary sequences on second and third strands, or hybridize to the fourth strand, causing it to unhybridize from the second and the third strands. See also NANO-

TECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, NANOMETERS (NM),

MOLECULAR MACHINES, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

(DNA), HYBRIDIZATION (MOLECULAR GENETICS),

SEQUENCE (OF A DNA MOLECULE), COMPLEMEN-

TARY (MOLECULAR GENETICS), SELF-ASSEMBLY

(OF A LARGE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE).

Bionics An interscience discipline for constructing artificial systems that resemble or have the characteristics of living systems. Bionics can encompass (in whole, or in part) bioelectronics, biosensors, biomimetic materials, biophysics, biomotors, and self-assem- bly (of a large molecular structure). See also

BIOLOGY, BIOELECTRONICS, BIOMIMETIC MATERI-

ALS, BIOSENSORS (ELECTRONIC), BIOPHYSICS,

BIOMOTORS.

Biophysics An area of scientific study in which physical principles, physical methods, and physical instrumentation are used to study living systems or systems related to life. It overlaps with biophysical chemistry, which is more specialized in scope since it is concerned

with the physical study of chemically isolated substances found in living organisms.

Biopolymer A high molecular weight organic compound found in nature, whose structure can be represented by a repeated small unit [i.e., monomer (links)]. Common biopolymers include cellulose (long-chain sugars found in most plants and the main constituent of dried woods, jute, flax, hemp, cotton, etc.) and proteins in general, and specifically collagen and gelatin. See also MOLECULAR

WEIGHT, PROTEIN, POLYMER.

Bioreceptors Refers to fragments of DNA, antibodies, protein molecules, and cellular probes (e.g., adhesion molecule) when those are attached to a man-made surface (e.g., biochip) for purposes of analyzing biological substances. See also HYBRIDIZATION SUR-

FACES, BIOCHIPS, ANTIBODY, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC

ACID (DNA), PROTEIN, ADHESION MOLECULE,

ORPHAN RECEPTORS, MICROARRAY (TESTING).

Biorecovery The use of organisms (including bacteria, plants, fungi, and algae) in the recovery (collecting) of various metals and/or organic compounds from ores or garbage (other matrices). See also BIOLEACHING,

CONSORTIA, BIOSORBENTS, PHYTOREMEDIATION,

METABOLIC ENGINEERING, BACTERIA, FUNGUS.

Bioremediation The use of organisms (plants, bacteria, fungi, etc.) to consume or otherwise help remove (biorecovery) materials (toxic chemical wastes, metals, etc.) from a contaminated site (e.g., the land and ponds on the site of an old refinery). See also BIORE-

COVERY, PHYTOREMEDIATION, METABOLIC ENGI-

NEERING, BIOLEACHING, BIODESULFURIZATION,

ORGANISM, BACTERIA, FUNGUS.

Biosafety See C O N V E N T I O N O N B I O L O G I C A L

DIVERSITY (CBD).

Biosafety Protocol See CONVENTION ON BIO-

LOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD), INTERNATIONAL

PLANT PROTECTION CONVENTION (IPPC).

Bioseeds Plant seeds produced via genetic engineering of existing plants. See also

GENETIC ENGINEERING, BIOLISTIC® GENE GUN,

HERBICIDE-TOLERANT CROP, PAT GENE, EPSP SYN-

THASE, ALS GENE, CP4 EPSPS, GLYPHOSATE OXI-

DASE, CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE, HIGH-LYSINE

CORN, ACURON™ GENE, HIGH-METHIONINE CORN,

HIGH-PHYTASE CORN AND SOYBEANS, HIGH-

STEARATE SOYBEANS, LOW-STACHYOSE SOYBEANS,

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

LOX NULL, PLANT’S NOVEL TRAI(PNT), “SHOTGUN” METHOD [TO INTRODUCE FOREIGN (NEW)

GENES INTO PLANT CELLS], BACILLUS THURINGIEN-

SIS (B.t.), B.t. KURSTAKI, B.t. TENEBRIONIS, B.t.

ISRAELENSIS, CRY PROTEINS, CRY1A (b) PROTEIN,

CRY1A (c) PROTEIN, CRY9C PROTEIN.

Biosensors (chemical) C h e m i c a l l y b a s e d devices that are able to detect and/or measure the presence of certain molecules (DNA, antigens, pesticides, etc.). These devices are currently created in the following forms:

1.A two-part diagnostic test that can detect the presence of trace amounts of specific chemicals (e.g., pesticides). The (chemical) biosensor consists of an immobilized enzyme (to bind the trace chemical) combined with a color reagent (to indicate visually the presence of the trace chemical).

2.A one-part test that can detect specific DNA segments in complex (“dirty,” multiple component) samples. The biosensor consists of 13-nm gold particles onto which are attached numerous nucleotide molecular chains. Each nucleotide chain contains 28 nucleotides. The 13 nucleotides that are closest to each gold particle serve as a spacer, and solutions containing such (spaced) randomly distributed gold particles appear red in color when illuminated by light.

The 15 nucleotides that are farthest from each gold particle are chosen to be complementary to, and thus bind to, nucleotide sequences in the target (e.g., DNA) molecule. In the presence of the specific target molecule, a closely linked network of gold particles and double-stranded nucleotide molecular chains forms (overcoming the 13-nucleotide “spacer” which previously held the gold particles apart). When doublestranded chains form (i.e., target molecule is present), the distance between gold particles becomes less than the size of those particles, making the solution containing (bound) particles appear blue in color when illuminated by light. See also ENZYME, IMMUNOASSAY,

	NANOCRYSTAL MOLECULES, NANOTECHNOLOGY,
	DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA), NANOMETERS
	(nm), ANTIGEN, SEQUENCE (OF A DNA MOLECULE),
		B
	NUCLEOTIDE, POLYMER, COMPLEMENTARY DNA
	(c-DNA), DOUBLE HELIX, DUPLEX, SELF-ASSEMBLY.
	Biosensors (electronic) Electronic sensors
	that are able to detect and measure the pres-
	ence of biomolecules such as sugars or DNA
	segments. Currently created by:
	1. Fusing organic matter (e.g., enzymes,
	antibodies, receptors, or nucleic acids)
	to tiny electrodes; yielding devices that
	convert natural chemical reactions into
	electric current to measure blood levels
	of certain chemicals (e.g., glucose or
	insulin), control functions in an artifi-
	cial organ, monitor some industrial
	processes, act as a robot’s “nose,” etc.
	2. Fusing organic matter (segment of
	DNA, antibody, enzyme, etc.) onto the
	surfaces of etched silicon wafers;
	yielding devices that convert supramo-
	lecular interactions [e.g., nucleotide
	hybridization, enzyme-substrate bind-
	ing, lectin-carbohydrate (sugar) inter-
	actions, antibody-antigen binding,
	host-guest complexation, etc.] into
	electric current via a charge-coupled
	device (CCD) detector. The CCD
	detector measures the shift in interfer-
	ence pattern caused by change in
	refractive index that results when the
	(sensed) molecule tightly binds to the
	fused (electronic) organic matter. For
	such an etched-silicon-wafer biosen-
	sor, the nucleotide hybridization (bind-
	i n g ) e n a b l e s t h e d e t e c t i o n o f
	f e m t o m o l a r ( 1 0 - 1 5 m o l e o r
	0.000000000000001) concentrations
	of DNA. If the (sensed) DNA segment
	is not complementary to the fused
	DNA segment, there is no significant
	change in the interference pattern.

A major goal is to build future generations of biosensors directly into computer chips. (Researchers have discovered that proteins can replace certain metals in semiconductors.) This would enable low-cost mass production via processes similar to those now

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

used for existing semiconductor chips, with circuits built right into the sensor to process data picked up by the biological matter on

Bthe chip. See also BIOCHIPS, QUARTZ CRYSTAL

MICROBALANCES, BIOELECTRONICS, ENZYME,

GENOSENSORS, RECEPTORS, ANTIBODY, BIOINOR-

GANIC, INSULIN, COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY,

SUBSTRATE (CHEMICAL), LECTINS, SUGAR MOLE-

CULES, CARBOHYDRATES (SACCHARIDES), GLU-

COSE (GLc), DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA),

NUCLEOTIDE, HYBRIDIZATION (MOLECULAR GENETICS), HYBRIDIZATION SURFACES, ANTIGEN,

COMPLEMENTARY DNA (c-DNA), GENE, NANO-

TECHNOLOGY, TEMPLATE.

Biosilk A biomimetic, man-made fiber produced by:

1.Sequencing the “dragline silk” protein that is produced by the orb-weaving spider

2.Synthesizing genes to code for the “dragline silk” protein (components)

3.Expressing those genes in a suitable host (i.e., yeast, bacteria) to cause production of the protein(s)

4.Dissolving the protein in a solvent, and then “spinning” the protein into fiber form by passing the liquid (dissolved protein) through a small orifice, followed by drying to remove the solvent

See also BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS, BIOPOLYMER,

PROTEIN, SEQUENCING (OF PROTEIN MOLECULES),

GENE, GENE MACHINE, SYNTHESIZING (OF DNA

MOLECULES), DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA),

EXPRESS, SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE.

Biosorbents Microorganisms which, either by themselves or in conjunction with a support/substrate system (e.g., inert granules) effect the extraction (e.g., from ore) and/or concentration of desired (precious) metals or organic compounds by means of selective retention of those entities. Retention of organic compounds (e.g., gasoline) may be for the purpose of cleaning polluted soil. See

also BIORECOVERY, BIOLEACHING, CONSORTIA.

Biosphere All the living matter on or in the earth, the oceans and seas, and the atmosphere. The area of the planet in which life is found to occur.

Biosynthesis Production of a chemical compound or entity by a living organism.

Biotechnology The means or way of manipulating life forms (organisms) to provide desirable products for man’s use. For example, beekeeping and cattle breeding could be considered to be biotechnology-related endeavors. The word biotechnology, coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky, applies to the interaction of biology with human technology. However, usage of the word biotechnology in the U.S. has come to mean all parts of an industry that knowingly create, develop, and market a variety of products through the willful manipulation, on a molecular level, of life forms, or utilization of knowledge pertaining to living systems. A common misconception is that biotechnology refers only to recombinant DNA (rDNA) work. However, recombinant DNA is only one of the many techniques used to derive products from organisms, plants, and parts of both for the biotechnology industry. A list of areas covered by the term biotechnology would more properly include: recombinant DNA, plant tissue culture, rDNA or gene splicing, enzyme systems, plant breeding, meristem culture, mammalian cell culture, immunology, molecular biology, fermentation, and others. See also GENETIC ENGI-

NEERING, BIORECOVERY, RECOMBINANT DNA

(rDNA), RECOMBINATION, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC

ACID (DNA), BIOLEACHING, GENE SPLICING, MAM-

MALIAN CELL CULTURE, FERMENTATION.

Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) An American trade association composed of companies and individuals involved in biotechnology and in services to biotechnology companies (accounting, law, etc.). Formed in 1993, the BIO was created by the merger of its two predecessor trade associations — the Association of Biotechnology Companies (ABC) and the Industrial Biotechnology Association (IBA). The BIO works with the government and the public to promote safe and rational advancement of genetic engineering and biotechnology. See

also BIOTECHNOLOGY, ASSOCIATION OF BIOTECH-

NOLOGY COMPANIES (ABC), INDUSTRIAL BIOTECH-

NOLOGY ASSOCIATION (IBA), JAPAN BIOINDUSTRY

ASSOCIATION, SENIOR ADVISORY GROUP ON BIO-

TECHNOLOGY (SAGB).

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC