153CHAPTER SEVEN

Programmable Logic Devices

be shared inputs and outputs. Not all of the outputs are necessarily of the same type, however. The 16R4, for example, has four registered outputs and four asynchronous (un-registered) outputs. The V parts have a special output “macro-cell” that can be programmed to be asynchronous (un-clocked), synchronous (clocked), inverted, non-inverted, feedback internally to the AND array, and so on.

Design Examples

Probably the most common applications of simple PLDs are as address decoders in microcomputer and microprocessor systems. A device such as the 16L8 PAL, with active low outputs is well suited to drive the active low enable inputs of most memory and I/O

	devices. Because a PAL		PLD	EPROM1CE
		8031		EPROM2CE
	can have different logic		PSEN
				IN_EN			+V
	functions on the same		RD
				RAM1CE
	chip, one PAL can		WR
				RAM2CE
	decode both memory		A15..A8			D0	SW1
	and I/O addresses.			OUT_CK
						Input Port
	Figure 7-7 shows an	Address	16				+V
	example of this. The	A0 ..15	A0 ..15			Output Port
	program memory	RD	To RAM OE			C	LED
	map for Figure 7-7 is
		WR	To RAM WE	D0		D	Q
	shown in Table 7-1; the
	external data memory	Figure 7-7: PLD decoding of memory and I/O enables.
	map is given in Table
	7-2. Address and control lines		Program Memory Address Space
	can be wired to the input pins,		Address Range (hex)		Device Selected
	and the output pins can drive		Program 0000 - 7FFF		2Kx8 EPROM 1
	the select and enable lines of		Program 8000 – FFFF		32Kx8 EPROM 2
	the memory and I/O chips.
		Table 7-1: Program memory map for Figure 7-7.

External Data Memory Address Space

Address Range (hex)		Device Selected	Table 7-2: External data
Data 0000	- 7FFF	32Kx8 SRAM 1	memory map for Figure 7-7.
Data 8000	- FEFF	32Kx8 SRAM 2
Data FF00 - FFFF Read		Input port enable
Data FF00 - FFFF Write		Output port latch clock

Figure 7-8: EPROM chip enable gate equivalents.

EPROM2CE

PSEN

A15

EPROM1CE

PSEN

A15

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Hardware Design

An 8031 system with two program EPROMs, two data SRAMs, and memory mapped I/O ports could be connected using gates or decoders, but it would be more efficient to use a 16L8 PAL. The inputs to the PAL are the control and address lines. The outputs are the memory chip enables, the input port drive enable, and the output latch clock.

Note that the program memory is full, using two 32-kilobyte devices. Also, the input and output ports appear in the external memory address space. This is an example partially decoded, memory mapped I/O, since the input and output devices appear repeatedly in a memory address range of FF00 to FFFF hex.

For the program memory, the equations that must be used to program the PLD would be as follows:

/EPROM1CE = /PSEN * /A15 Enabled when PSEN active and A15 = 0 /EPROM2CE = /PSEN * A15 Enabled when PSEN active and A15 = 1

The equations above will enable the EPROMs when the processor is fetching instructions (/PSEN = 0) so that EPROM1 will be enabled for program memory addresses 0-7FFF and EPROM2 will be enabled for addresses 8000-FFFF.

The gates in Figure 7-8 are the equivalent to the equations for the EPROM chip enable equations shown above. Note that the gate used for the EPROM1CE function is equivalent to a simple OR

gate. This is because inverting all the inputs and outputs of a logic function

changes it from an AND to an OR and vice versa.

The RAM addresses are similarly

enabled when the processor is accessing external data memory, except that the input and output ports are memory mapped into addresses FF00 to FFFF. In order to avoid bus contention, SRAM 2 is disabled between FF00 and FFFF.

/RAM1CE = /A15 Enabled when A15 = 0 /RAM2CE = A15 * /A14 * /A13 * /A12 * /A11 * /A10 * /A9 * /A8

Enabled when address > 8000 and < FFxx

/IN_EN = /RD * A15 * A14 * A13 * A12 * A11 * A10 * A9 * A8 Input Enabled when RD low and address = FFxx

/OUT_CK = /WR * A15 * A14 * A13 * A12 * A11 * A10 * A9 * A8 Output latch clock when WR address FFxx

EPROM1

0000

Figure 7-9: Memory address map.

8000

7FFF

SRAM1

SRAM2

EPROM2

155CHAPTER SEVEN

Programmable Logic Devices

This PLD implements a system with 64 kilobytes of program EPROM, and 64 kilobytes-256 bytes of data RAM. Note that 256 bytes of the external data memory address space are dedicated, or mapped, to the input/output port. The input port can be read as if it were data memory at locations FF00 to FFFF hex. This incomplete, or partial address decoding, decodes 256 different addresses to access the same input/output port (partial I/O address decoding). Similarly, the output port can be written to by writing data to data RAM addresses FF00 to FFFF hex. Note that changing the I/O addresses to different values requires only changing the equations and burning the corresponding fuse map patterns into another PLD. If the address map should need to be changed, it is possible

	to do so by using a different PAL		Program		External
	device programmed with a				Data
	different fuse map representing		Memory		Memory
		FFFF		FFFF	I/O
	different equations.
				FF00
				FEFF

Tables 7-1 and 7-2 above can also be represented graphically with an address map, as shown in Figure 7-9.

8000

7FFF

0000

PLD Development Tools

Because of the complexity that results from flexibility in defining PLD functions, it is not practical to manually define the fuse map that is used to program a PLD. Automated translation programs are used to convert a higherlevel description of the logic to the low-level fuse map that is required. The software that performs that task is referred to as a PLD assembler or compiler because it is equivalent to a programming language translator used on a general-purpose desktop personal computer. PLD development software is available from both PLD vendors and other software houses, in versions that run on PCs and workstations. PLD assemblers input Boolean equations and generate the corresponding fuse map for programming. PLD compilers, on the other hand, take higher-level circuit descriptions such as logic schematics, state diagrams, and truth tables as input in addition to Boolean equations. The equation notation and syntax are unique to each particular translator. Some of the translators will perform additional functions such as selecting the appropriate type of PLD for the design, and logic minimization that is intended to reduce the complexity and cost of the device that will ultimately implement the design.

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Hardware Design

The two most common high-level logic compiler languages are VHDL and Verilog. Both of these hardware description languages are in common use for the design and definition of large, complex logic designs, as are commonly implemented in large custom logic ICs, and FPGAs. Because the larger FPGAs are difficult to program and modify using standard gate and module level design, the high-level hardware description languages are gaining popularity. The advantages and disadvantages of using a high-level hardware description language are very similar to those of a high-level computer language. By implementing a design using these high level descriptions, it is possible to take a chip design from one type of device to another with less effort than if

it was done at the gate level. Of course, similar trade-offs exist as they do for high-level language programs. They are less compact and efficient in the way they utilize the hardware, and tend to result in somewhat slower performance than hand optimized gate level designs.

Other design tools, such as logic simulators, allow the logic functions to be tested against known input and output logic patterns. The test patterns, referred to as test vectors, are presented to the software simulation of the PLD logic design in sequence and the simulated outputs are compared with the desired outputs for discrepancies. The test vectors for design verification are generated by the design engineer to verify that the design will perform as intended. Unfortunately some of the most common problems and errors are those that were not planned for and only show up upon plugging the PLD into the circuit. Unforeseen conditions often cause erroneous outputs, requiring correction of the PLD design.

Test vectors are also important in verifying that the PLD is fully functional. Even though the fuse map is read back during the programming process, other faults may be impossible to detect by verifying the fuse map. This is particularly true for fuse link devices, since there is no way for them to be fully tested at the factory due to the fact that they cannot be erased. The test vectors that are used for design verification can be applied to the device for testing immediately after being programmed and verified on many PLD programmers. Generating a set of test vectors that will detect all possible faults (100% fault coverage is virtually impossible, and even approaching that goal can require a lot of effort and many test vectors, particularly for sequential circuits. To address that need, some PLD software vendors have test vector generator programs, which will create a set of test vectors for a given PLD design automatically. Most of the newer, more complex devices also have