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accordance with the conditions of his body, of his environment, and of the time in which he lives, these basic capacities are differentiated and lead to an unmistakable structure of essential traits.

V.Make up sentences with the following wordcombinations:

to keep one's distance from; to get angry about;

to trust no longer; to lose confidence;

to have nothing to do with.

VI. What feelings do unreliable people evoke in you?

And what about impolite people (unpleasant, dishonest)? Give your arguments. Use wordcombinations of exercise 5 to develop your idea.

Text 9

I.Read and render the contents in Russian: Basic Capacities in the Literature

The principle of the capacities is found in the literature in many forms. All the concepts of the human sciences contain, directly or indirectly, fundamental dimensions or basic capacities, from which behavior or perception can be derived. In some lines of thought these are the drives, in others the ability to learn, and in still others emotional dimensions such as the «endothymic base.» In each case, the nature and the evaluation of the respective «basic capacities» correspond to the underlying view of man.

S. Freud, who sees the sexual and aggressive drives as the predominant «basic capacities,» formulates his view of man in the following way: «The development of man to date seems to me to require no other explication than that related to the animals.»

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In hindsight, it seems strange that in the history of psychology, the reflexologist Pavlov puts forward a similar view of man: «After everything that I have presented in the previous lessons, it is hardly possible to dispute the fact that the quite general bases of higher nervous activity are the same in the higher animals and in man.»

These conclusions are not just the value-neutral conclusions or the detached opinions of scientists. They are based, strictly speaking, not on facts, but rather on a view of man originating in the mechanistic era. The question of whether the same regularities hold for men as for animals has rather less theoretical and philosophical than eminently practical significance. Here, the question is raised as to what man is to be regarded as; how, consequently, he can and must be treated; and which developmental possibilities are granted or denied him. The view of man thus has profound consequences for rearing, for relations with human beings in general, for interpersonal relations, and for psychotherapy.

Both basic capacities of Positive Psychotherapy can be inferred from human behavior, largely comprehensible in terms of the actual capacities. Here, observable behavior functions as an indicator of universal dispositions or essential traits .

W. Stern speaks here of «lasting potential causalities,» which, in their actualization and differentiation, have need of «convergence with the world.» D. C. Jordan and D. У. Streets state that «knowing and loving are the two basic capacities. From the blending and differentiation of these two capacities all human potentialities are derived.» With their pedagogic conception as a point of departure, they associate the following developmental categories with the two basic powers of knowing arid loving: psychomotor development, perceptual development, cognitive development, affective and emotional development, moral development, development of volition, development of creativity and of aesthetic sensitivity, spiritual development, and language development. Based on these

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discriminations, the authors formulate a comprehensive pedagogic program, the Anisa Model.

II.Whose formulation of basic capacities do you consider to be the most significant?

III.Read the paragraph below and give it a heading:

Conclusion: Classical psychology had already employed the fundamental distinction between cognition, involving perception and thinking, and emotion, involving feelings and affective resonance. Together with behavior, cognition and emotion are held by social psychology to be the essential aspects of attitudes. In the history of psychology, this trichotomy is found again in the triad: thinking, feeling, and willing. A number of theories, while not differentiating between the capacities to know and to love, employ a concept which is in many ways similar to that of the basic capacity. A. P. Weil speaks in this sense of an

«original psychological nucleus,» Charlotte Buhler of a «spiritual nucleus» which is present from birth on. H. Ey differentiates, in a way analogous to the relationship between basic and actual capacities, between the

«trajectory of the personality» and the «superficial field of consciousness»; however, he does not employ these expressions in a general sense, restricting them instead to pathological disturbances. Similarly, Weitbracht sees the

«substratum» as one of the factors which conditions neuroses. In his theory, S. Freud reverts to a basic dualism, one component of which he locates in the dynamic domain of the personality, the other being seen in the obligations confronting the individual and in societal demands. He differentiates between the pleasure principle and the reality principle. When E. H. Erikson speaks of a gradation of basic virtues and conceives of them as

«inward strength» or «active quality», these virtues, as

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certain kinds of human energy, stand, content-wise, closer to the actual capacities than to the basic capacities in our sense.

IV. Ask your friend 10 questions on the text.

V. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1.The sexual and aggressive drives are the predominant basic capacities.

2.The general bases of higher nervous activity are the same in higher animals and in man.

3.Knowing and loving are the two basic capacities.

4.Cognition and emotion are the essential aspects of attitudes.

VI. Speak on:

1.S. Freud's treatment of basic capacities.

2.The Anisa Model.

3.The triad: thinking, feeling, and willing.

Text 10

I. Read the item and answer the questions:

1.What does every human being seek to discover?

2.What is the capacity to know linked to?

What Is the Capacity to Know?

The capacity to know means the ability to learn and to teach. Every human being seeks to discover the relationships in reality. He asks why an apple falls to the ground, why a tree grows, why the sun shines, why a car goes, why there exist sickness and suffering. He takes an interest in who he really is, where he comes from, and where he will go. These are not only the questions of philosophy, but also questions that reflect a basic human

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need. The nature of man, to ask such questions and to seek the answers to them, is the expression of the capacity to know. Educationally, it is built upon the transmission of knowledge.

The capacity to know branches out into the mutually complementary capacities to learn and to teach, i.e., the capacities to have experiences and to impart them. The disparity between learning and teaching produces a special source of conflicts: if we want to operate a complicated technical apparatus, we must first learn how it works. If we want to pass this tool on to another person, we have a duty to instruct him, to teach him. If we don't do that, we shouldn't be surprised if he destroys the expensive instrument through misuse. The disparity between learning and teaching leads to a tension which is widespread in child rearing, marriage, and relations between generations. Out of the capacity to know develop the secondary capacities, such as punctuality, orderliness, cleanliness, courtesy, honesty, and thrift.

II. Make up a list of capacities to learn and those to teach.

II. Read the text below and make up a summary:

Modes of the Capacity to Know

Let us ask ourselves which modes are available for the development of the capacity to know. We distinguish four modes of knowing. They are latent in every person as capacities, the kind and degree of unfolding of which is conditioned by the environment:

1.The senses

2.Reason

3.Tradition

4.Intuition

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The functioning of all four modes is more or less codetermined by the «unconscious.»

Model functions in the development of the four modes of the capacity to know

Carried over to the partnership situation: many of our partners, and certainly all patients, are at least as sensitive as every old feudalistic ruler. Our partners can repay our honesty with withdrawal of love, vengeance (justice), or in such a way that we regret ever having honestly and frankly expressed our opinion. The myths are available as a help: they hit home to the degree one wants them and at oneself. They are especially relevant in that they address a mode of knowledge which for adults, and often for children, is unrecognized and only just manages to stay alive: intuition. In modern industrial society intuition is seen as unimportant and, to the degree that it is recognized at all, is subordinated to reason. It is just this capacity which the stories address. They promote that playful, unforced imagination and fantasy which is not directly controlled by reality, but rather through the fantasy reality of the story. With intuition a capacity is stimulated which in many people leads a shadow existence; in addition an entry is made into fantasy, over which many patients have lost control.

IV. Do you agree with the list of four modes of knowing? Give your arguments-

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V. Characterize each mode of knowing separately. VI. Read the conclusion drawn and express your

opinion:

Conclusion: Mythological stories can serve as a therapeutic vehicle to reflect problematic attitudes and areas of behavior, to stimulate associations, and to provoke a conversation about conflict areas which otherwise remain closed to verbalization. The stories are pedagogic aids in psychotherapy, and sometimes even for the therapist himself.

VII.Write an essay on «Psychotherapy and its Basic Tools».

VIII. Read the text and speak on importance of psychotherapy in human life:

Psychotherapy covers the psychological treatment of a wide range of mental and physical illnesses by a number of different methods, each developed in terms of its own theoretical framework. Such treatment is carried out with individual patients or clients, with groups of patients and with children as well as adults. Methods vary from a long series of intimate discussions extending over two or three years, to only one or two intense interviews. Group treatment may consist of acting out problems or the encouragement of expression of inhibited emotions within the therapeutic group.

Psychotherapy, as well as the use of hypnosis with psychotherapy, is most appropriately regarded as a postqualification specialization for members of one of the primary professional groups such as medical practitioners, applied psychologists or social workers. Such people are more likely to interact in the development of psychological problems and to have a sufficient range of professional experience and skills to judge when a potential client might be more appropriately helped by other methods.

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IX. Read about some relatively new occupations in the field of psychology and say what profession of those mentioned in the text appeals to you more:

Counselling psychologists aim to help people improve their sense of well-being, alleviate their distress, resolve their crises and increase their ability to solve problems and make decisions for themselves. They do this through the application of psychological theories, research and techniques to help individuals and groups deal with some of the inevitable difficulties of normal life. Counselling psychologists work with individuals, couples, families and groups. They work in diverse settings: some work privately, some in primary health care, others in counselling organizations and academic settings, whilst others are employed within business organizations.

Educational psychologists tackle the problems encountered by young people in education, which may involve learning difficulties and social and emotional problems. Their work normally takes place in schools, colleges, nurseries, and special units, and involves working closely with teachers and parents.

Most of the time is spent in assessing children's progress, their academic and emotional needs and providing help and advice. Reports have to be written about children for allocation of special educational places or as part of court proceedings. Increasingly, educational psychologists work with teachers to improve the school environment.

Forensic psychologists deal with the application of psychology within the judicial and penal systems. They are concerned with the training and treatment of prisoners, carrying out clinical interviews and behavioural and psychometric tests. Increasingly, they also help prison officers, deal with inmates and with assessing prison governors with management issues, stress and hostage situations. Prison psychologists are employed through out

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the prison service, including youth custody centers, remand centers and adult prisons.

Health psychologists work in a relatively new field of applied psychology. They are represented in a number of settings, such hospitals, academic health research units, health authorities and university departments. Psychological principles are used to promote changes in people's attitudes, behaviour and thinking about health. Health psychologists also work with other professionals, advising in areas such as patient communication, assessing and evaluating services to patients and how people's beliefs may affect treatment.

Occupational psychology is concerned with the world of work and training, and as such can have many guises. It may be labelled organizational psychology, ergonomics (human factors, engineering applications of psychology), applied psychology, industrial psychology, personnel management, time management or management consultancy.

Occupational psychologists are involved with issues such as the selection and training of staff. Psychometric tests, communication, the working environment and effective management. Major changes brought about by technology, privatisation and recession have led to an increasing demand for their services.

Occupational psychologists often work for large companies (in both the private and public sectors), in government and public services, in management training centres and for private consultancies. They usually work alongside other professionals such as managers, trade union representatives, training officers and specialist staff from the firm or industry concerned.

Research psychologists work in universities, government agencies or private companies. Their work varies enormously: in universities it may be pure research which aims simply at a better understanding of human behaviour, while research psychologists working in commercial organizations may be researching topics of direct relevance to their employers.

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WHATS YOUR OPINION?

This quiz is designed to test your social attitudes. Work through it with a partner. For each statement mark ++ if

you strongly agree, + if you tend to agree, 0 if you have no particular opinion, - if you tend to disagree and - - if you strongly disagree.

1.People should not be able to obtain a better education or better medical care for their families by paying for them.

2.Blood sports, like fox-hunting, should be made illegal.

3.Homosexuality should never be treated as a crime.

4.All young men and women should undergo a period of military training, even in peacetime.

5.Capital punishment is a deterrent to would-be murderers.

6.Soft drugs like marijuana should be made legal.

7.People who live in a welfare state tend to lose all sense of initiative.

8.There is nothing wrong with people living together before they are married.

9.In certain circumstances, censorship of the press, literature, films, etc. is justifiable.

10.Trade unions are a hindrance to industrial progress.

11.A person should be entitled to take his or her own life without society interfering, if he or she wishes to do so.

12.Royalty and nobility are incompatible with democracy.

13.It is unfair that some people inherit vast incomes while other people have to work for a living.

14.Most strikes are the result of bad management.

15.It is normal that the police should tap telephones when investigating a crime.

16.Young people with beards and long hair are unpleasant to look at.