И. П. Крылова, Е. М. Гордон -- Грамматика современного английского языка_ENG

§ 35. In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous is not common; the Past Perfect (Non-Continuous) is preferred in them when the negation refers to the action itself but not to its circum stances (see also "Verbs", § 19).

e.g. I knew they had not corresponded for years.

§ 36. It is noteworthy that Past Perfect Continuous I and par - ticularly Past Perfect Continuous II may sometimes be found with stative verbs.

e.g. Beside the porch he stopped to examine the web of a spider which he had been noticing for a week or more.

Certainly the medicine had steadied her; the sinking feeling

she had been having was all gone.

Over tea she tried to find out whether I had been seeing Sheila.

§ 37. Note some sentence patterns in which the Present Per - fect Continuous or the Past Perfect Continuous is found:

1) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in - troduced by since, whose action indicates the starting point of the action in the principal clause. Hence, the Past Indefinite is used in the since-clause. As to the principal clause, the Present Perfect Continuous (or Present Perfect II) is used in it in pres ent-time contexts (a) and the Past Perfect Continuous (or Past Perfect II) in past-time contexts (b).

e.g. a) "They are bombs. You could blow the roof of the whole of this building with what I've got here," said the lunatic "I've been carting them from roo m to room since the war began."

I've known him since we were kids.

b) Michael rose and clutched his hat. Wilfred had said exact ly what he himself had really been thinking ever since he came.

Mr Bentley was a publisher because ever since he was a boy he had had a liking for books.

2) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in troduced by the conjunctions while and since or by some connective words and expressions such as as long as, during the week, in

the short time (that), all the time (that), etc. The actions in both clauses may be parallel, starting at the same time in the past and continuing either into or up to the moment of speaking in present - time contexts (a) or into or up to a given past moment in past -time contexts (b). Accordingly, the Present Perfect Continuous (or Present Perfect II) is used in both clauses in the former case and the Past Perfect Continuous (or Past Perfect II) in the latter case.

e.g. a) Our friendship has been growing all the time we've been working on the project.

I've been rather shut in since we've been here, with all this bad weather.

b) We had been sitting on our beds while George had been telling me this true story.

The suit had been neither pressed nor brushed since he had had it.

3) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction when. The action of the subordinate clause may serve to indicate a given past moment into or up to which the action of the principal clause, that had begun before that moment, continued. The duration of the action is indicated by some adverbial modifier of time. Accordingly, the Past Indefinite is found in the when-clanse and the Past Perfect Continuous (or Past Perfect II) in the principal clause. It should be noted that this is a very commonly occurring pattern.

e.g. He had been sitting by the fire for nearly an hour when his mother came into the room with a letter in her hands.

They had been walking for less than an hour when the moon

suddenly appeared between the heavy clouds.

The Future Indefinite

§ 38. The Future Indefinite is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall (for the first per - son, singular and plural) and will (for the second and third per - sons, singular and plural) and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g. / shall see him tomorrow. He will see 'them tomorrow. You will see them tomorrow, etc.).

It should be mentioned that in present-day English there is a tendency to use will for all the persons. Besides, the difference in the use of shall and will disappears altogether in spoken English where the contracted form 'l1 is used with all the persons (e.g. I'll see him tomorrow. She'll see him tomorrow. They'll see him tomorrow, etc.).

The auxiliary verbs shall and will are used to build up the interrogative and the negative forms, too (e.g. Shall we see you tomorrow? Will they see him tomorrow? I shall not see you tomor row. You will not see me tomorrow, etc.).

In spoken English the contracted forms shan't and won't are commonly used in negative sentences.

§ 39. The Future Indefinite is found only in present-time contexts. It is by far the most common of all the finite forms refer - ring an action to the future. Although it is widely used in English, it is somewhat restricted in its application owing to a number of reasons which will be dealt with below.

The Future Indefinite may be used to express:

1) a single point action that will be completed in the future,

e.g. It will ruin her.

I know I'm right, and one of these days you'll realize it. 2) an action occupying a whole period of time in the future,

e.g. I think I shall remain in love with you all my life. I hope you'll live for many years.

3) a succession of actions in the future,

e.g. I shall wait in the next room and come back when she's gone. We'll just talk about the weather and the crops for a few minutes and then we'll have dinner.

4) some recurrent actions in the future,

e.g. I shall come along as often as possible.

I hope we shall see something of you while you are in London.

5) some permanent future actions generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject of the sentence,

e.g. I'm afraid he'll be a bit lonely, poor darling.

The old age pension will keep me in bread, tea and onions, and what more does an old man want?

The Future Continuous

§ 40. The Future Continuous is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Future Indef - inite and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. / shall be seeing him often now. He will be seeing them often now, etc.). (On the formation of the Future Indefinite see "Verbs", § 38; on the formation of the ing-form see "Verbs", §11.)

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be - fore the subject (e.g. Shall I be seeing him often now? Will he be seeing them often now?, etc.). In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. / shall not be seeing him often now. He will not be seeing them often now, etc.).

In spoken English the contracted form '11 is used with all the persons in affirmative sentences and shan't and won't in negative sentences.

§ 41. The Future Continuous is used in the following cases:

1) To express an action in progress at a definite future moment. The precise time limits of the action are not specified and the fu - ture moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation.

e.g. We'll just be beginning the experiments then, and my con - tract here ends this summer.

Now I feel absolutely dopy. God knows what I shall be saying in a minute.

However, in present-day English this original meaning of the Future Continuous is not so common since it is seldom required by the situation.

2) To express an action which the speaker expects to take place in the future in the natural course of events. It may be used with or without time indications and generally refers to the near future though it is also possible to use it for a more distant future.

e.g. I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow. Maurice is tired. He will be coming to bed directly.

"You haven't been out for a week," his mother said. "Five days," Vincent put down his paper. "You'll be taking root in that armchair. Your face is growing paler every day."

He yawned. "Another five minutes and I'll be explaining the law of gravity to another set of my pupils. I'll be making the same old jokes and they'll be laughing at them in the same old way."

Bob will not be coming. He's been taken ill.

This use should be regarded as the main application of the Future Continuous in modern English.

§ 42. Note the following examples in which the Future Continuous is used with stative verbs.

e.g. "What's your brother like? I shall be knowing him a t Oxford," said Val.

Harris said, "We shall be wanting to start in less than twelve hours' time."

"What sort of house has Laura?" "I didn't notice. I shan't be seeing her again in any case."

The Future Perfect

§ 43. The Future Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Future Indefi - nite and the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I shall have read the book by that time, He will have read the book by that time, etc.). (On the formation of the Future In definite see "Verbs", § 38; on the formation of the participle see "Verbs", § 5.)

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be - fore the subject (e.g. Will she have read the book by that time? Will you have read the book by that time?, etc.). In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. We shall not have read the book by that time. They will not have read the book by that time, etc.).

In spoken English the contracted form '11 is used with all the persons in affirmative sentences and shan't and won't in negative sentences.

§ 44. The Future Perfect is used to express an action accomplished before a given future moment which is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier.

e.g. I daresay you'll have gone to bed by the time I've finished.

I suppose we shall have made up our minds whom we are going to elect before the meeting.

The Future Perfect is not used very often owing to the fact that it is seldom required by the situation.

Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared

§ 45. All future actions are by nature hypothetical. Owing to that, ways of expressing future actions — in addition to the meaning of futurity — are often associated with various other modal meanings, such as intention, willingness, readiness, obligation, assurance, expectation and the like. That explains why English is rich in means of referring an action to the future.

§ 46. The following is a description of different means of expressing future actions in present-day English:!

1) The Present Continuous is used to express a future action as definitely settled due to one's previous decision. The action is go - ing to take place in the near future and the time is, as a rule, indi - cated in the sentence by means of such adverbial modifiers as tonight, next week, in a few days, etc.

e.g. She is coming to lunch on Thursday. You know, I'm going away tonight. Are you staying long?

Teddie is leaving here by the first train tomorrow. Patrick, are we doing anything at the weekend?

This use of the Present Continuous is also possible without any time indications and then the action refers to the immediate future.

e.g. It's Fred. He's going to Italy and wants to say good-bye. I'm just going upstairs to change and pack.

I'm sorry you are leaving England.

And now I must go as we are dining out.

Some of these forms can be regarded as purely grammatical ways of expressing future actions; others are on the border-line between lexical and grammatical means.

Note. Note that in questions beginning with when the Present Continuous a ways refers the action to the future.

e.g. When is he coming?

When are you going back?

When the Present Continuous is used to refer an action to the future, the action is regarded as fixed and the speaker is certain that it will take place.

With stative verbs the Future Indefinite should be applied to refer an action to the future.

2) The Future Continuous is also one of the means of express ing future actions. It is described in detail in "Verbs", § 41.

The difference between the Present Continuous used to denote a future action and the Future Continuous becomes quite evident if we compare the following sentences:

e.g. We are meeting tomorrow (= we have arranged to meet tomor row, we have fixed the date of our meeting).

We shall be meeting tomorrow (= not because of some ar rangement but in the normal course of events; either be cause we work together, or because we attend classes togeth er, or regularly play some game at the same place and at the same time, etc.).

3) To be + infinitive (with to), like the Present Continuous, serves to indicate a previous arrangement, but in addition to that meaning it generally implies obligation resulting from that ar - rangement. Besides, it differs from the Present Continuous i n that it does not necessarily refer the action to the near future. The verb to be in this combination is regarded as a modal verb.

Since a previous arrangement is the basic meaning of this combination and the action always refers to the future, no special indi cation of time is needed in the sentence, though the time may be mentioned if necessary.

e.g. I've had a letter from home. I'm to go back at once.

This autumn he is entering the Military College. He is to make the Army his career.

The meaning of obligation may become so strong that "to be + infinitive" sometimes expresses orders or instructions which are to be carried out in the future.

e.g. Milly, you are not to talk like that in front of the child.

4) To be going to + infinitive is an important means of referring an action to the future which is frequently used in modern English. It is convenient to refer to it as the "going-to form".

The "going-to form" may have the following meanings:

a) It serves to express premeditated intention which means that the person denoted by the subject has been planning for some time to perform the action, has been thinking of it, that some preparation for the action has been in progress. Indications of time are optional in this case.

e.g. I'm not going to live at home.

I'm going to say something dreadful to you, Dorothy. I'm going to tell him what I think of him.

He's not going to make any concessions. Are you going to play tennis?

What are you going to do about it? She's going to explain that tomorrow.

Oh, I'm not going to marry for years yet.

Note. The verb to go is actually not the Present Continuous here. It is the Present Continuous only in form; its use has become idiomatic in this combination.

Although this means of referring an action to the future is frequently found in English, its application is somewhat restricted — it is mainly found with dynamic verbs. An important exception to the rule, however, is the verb to be which often occurs in this construction.

e.g. He's going to be a solicitor.

Of course, the trip's goingto be wonderful.

The verbs to go and to come are rarely found with the "goingto form". Thus, He is going to go or He is going to come are uncommon in English. These verbs are generally used in the Present Continuous instead.

e.g. Oh, are you going to Italy? Are you coming, Mother?

b) It may also be used to show the speaker's feeling that the action is imminent, that it is unavoidable in the near future. No indication of time is generally needed in this case.

e.g. I don't know what is going to happen.

"The next few years," said George, "are going to be a won - derful time to be alive."

Oh, what is going to become of us? I'm afraid I'm going to cry.

5)The Present Indefinite is also an important means of ex - pressing future actions. It is used in four different cases which have been described in "Verbs", § 10, 4.

6)The Future Indefinite. After all the other means of express - ing future actions have been described, it is now necessary to see what remains for the Future Indefinite proper to express.

In the first place it should be pointed out that the Future In - definite is used differently with dynamic and stative verbs.

With stative verbs the Future Indefinite is used to express any action referring to the future, without any restrictions.

e.g. His suggestion will interest you enormously. You'll think his ideas absurd.

She'll know the truth soon.

Don't bother, I shall manage all right by myself. Dad will never consent to our marriage.

It'll be rather fun coming up to town to eat my dinners. I'll be back presently.

We shall have some news for you to take to your people. It will not make much difference to me.

The other means of expressing future actions are not common with stative verbs — some of them seem to be impossible with these verbs (e.g. the Present Continuous, the Future Continuous, partly the Present Indefinite) while others are uncommon (e.g. the

"going-to form").

Although the number of stative verbs is limited, they are in frequent use, which makes the role of the Future Indefinite very important in English.

With dynamic verbs the Future Indefinite is used freely only under certain conditions:

a) In the principal clause of a complex sentence with a clause of time, condition and concession. 1

1 In the subordinate clauses we find the Present Indefinite or the Present Perfect (see "Verbs", § 10, 4 and § 16, 3).

e.,g. "We shall catch the train if we start now," she insisted. You're the prettiest woman I've ever known and I shall say

the same when you're a hundred.

As soon as we have had tea, Fred, we shall go to inspect your house.

We'll talk about it whenever he comes.

Other means of expressing future actions are uncommon in this case.

b) In passive constructions.

e.g. He'll be voted down.

My chief will be informed of your request. She will be paid in cash.

c) To express a succession of actions in the future. No other means seems to be suitable here.

e.g. I shall prepare you a nice little dinner and then we'll leave you.

I'll take a walk to the sea and on my way back I'll buy you a newspaper.

d) When the time of the realization of the action is indefinite or when its realization is remote.

e.g. We shall meet again one day. Life will teach her a lesson. He'll never sell his little cottage.

Such sentences often contain adverbial modifiers of indefinite time, e.g. always, forever, in future, never, some day and the like.

e) To denote actions whose realization is uncertain, doubtful or merely supposed, as their fulfilment depends on some implied condition.

e.g. You mustn't cry. Please, don't, or I shall go to pieces. Protest as you like, Mr Руке, it won't alter my decision.

In this case we sometimes find such attitudinal adverbs in the Sentence as perhaps, probably, of course and the like.

e..g. They'll probably get a lot of satisfaction out of our quarrel. Of course he will send you a letter in a few days.

f) In object clauses after verbs (and their equivalents) expressing personal views or opinions, such as to be afraid, to believe, to be sure, to doubt, to expect, to have no doubt, to hope, to imagine, to know, to suppose, to suspect, to think, to wonder and the like. Sometimes these verbs are used in parenthesis.

e.g. He thinks a scandal will ruin his reputation. I don't know what I shall do without you.

I ' m afraid he won't talk to you.

I've no doubt you'll explain it perfectly.

His new novel is (I'm quite sure of it) another masterpiece.

On the whole it should be noted that although other means of expressing futurity can also be used under the conditions de - scribed above (a, b, c, d, e, f), they are applied when their meaning is specially required.

§ 47. If dynamic verbs are used in the Future Indefinite under conditions other than those described above, the sentences become modally coloured. This occurs owing to the fact that the auxilia - ries shall and will preserve their modal meanings.

Thus shall preserves its original meaning of obligation, if somewhat modified, with the 2nd and 3rd persons in sentences expressing promise, threat or warning.

e.g. I promise you, Arthur, that Harold shan't do anything about it. He shall have a scandal. He shall have the worst scandal there has been in London for years.

Shall also preserves its modal meaning when it is used in asking after the will of the person addressed.

e.g. Shall I bring you some coffee? Oh, Alfred, what shall we do?

Will (in print will or 'll is often used in affirmative sentences with the first person, singular and plural, to express such mean - ings as wish, willingness, readiness, intention, determination to perform an action.

e.g. Г11 do what I can.

I'll go wherever you take me.

Will in sentences of this kind also shows that the speaker of - fers to perform an action.

e.g. I'll go and get a drink for you.

I'll wire to have the room ready for them. I'll come with you, Barbara.

In affirmative sentences will with the 2nd and 3rd persons may occasionally express a command.

e.g. You will come here tomorrow not later than ten, Mr Lickcheese. Bernard will pay the taxi.

In negative sentences will expresses refusal to perform an action.

e.g. I won't argue with you. He won't be ordered about.

In general questions, direct and indirect, as well as in disjunctive questions, will also preserves its modal meaning and the interrogative sentence is actually to be understood as a request or an invitation.

e.g. Will you ask him to ring me back? You'll wait for us, won't you? Oh, ask him if he won't come in.

The same is true of complex sentences with an if -clause in which will is used to express willingness or consent.

e.g. Oh, but we shall be delighted if you'll lunch with us. Will may express supposition.

e.g. As she entered the room, the telephone rang. "That'll be your mother," Jenny said to her husband.

For a detailed treatment of the modal verbs shall and will see "Verbs", §§105, 113-116.

§ 48. By way of exception to the above rules, dynamic verbs mау occasionally be found in the Future Indefinite to express mere futurity without any additional modal meanings. This use of

the Future Indefinite may be understood as an expression of neu -		Means of Expressing Future Actions Viewed
trality or impartiality on the part of the speaker. {Usually one of		from the Past
the other means of expressing futurity is used in such cases.)		§ 51. English has some special forms to express future actions if
e.g. I shall dine in my own room.
		they are viewed from some moment in the past. The most common
I shall leave you with your father for half an hour.		of these means is the Future-in-the-Past, which, like the Future,
In this chapter we shall present a brief account of new meth-		has the following forms: the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past, the
ods that we have used.		Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-
Be quiet. Somebody will answer the bell.		Past.
This use of the Future Indefinite is found in formal announce-		1) The Future Indefinite-in-the-Past is an analytical form
		which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs should (for the
ments of future plans in newspapers and news broadcasts.
		first person, singular and plural) and would (for the second and
e.g. This is the weather forecast for the afternoon. A belt of de -		third persons, singular and plural) and the infinitive of the notion -
pression will spread further north, showers will fall in		al verb without the particle to (e.g. / said I should do it. I said he
southern districts.		would do it, etc.). In present-day English there is a tendency to use
		would for all the persons. Besides, the difference in the use of
§49. It stands to reason that sometimes the difference be -		should and would disappears altogether in spoken English where
		the contracted form 'd is used with all the persons (e.g. / said I'd
tween the various means of referring an action to the future may
		to it. I said he'd do it, etc.). In negative sentences the particle not
become unimportant, as the distinction is often very subtle. Thus,
		в placed after the auxiliaries should and would with which it often
there are cases when two different forms may be used inter-
		forms the contractions shouldn't and wouldn't (e.g. I said I should
changeably without any noticeable difference in meaning.
		not (shouldn't) do it. I said he would not (wouldn't) do it, etc.).
Cf. We are going to the pictures tonight.		The use of the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past is structurally de-
We are to go to the pictures tonight.		pendent: mainly found in object clauses after one of the past fi -
He is taking his exam next week.		mite forms in the principal clause. 1
He will be taking his exam next week.		e.g. At twenty I did not know whether any woman would love me
I'm meeting Tom at the station.
		with her whole heart.
I'm going to meet Tom at the station.
		I felt that further conversation with Dave would be
		unprofit-
§ 50. Note the use of the Future Indefinite in the following		able at that moment.
stereotyped sentences:		He was sure I should get the job.
e.g. I'll ask you to excuse me.		The Future Indefinite-in-the-Past expresses the time of the ac-
You'll excuse me, Gardner.		tion relatively (see "Verbs", § 54), i.e. with regard to a given past
Well, we'll see.		moment the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the
It'll do you good.		Principal clause.
It won't do them harm to cool their heads a bit.		2) The Future Continuous-in-the-Past is an analytical form
		which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Fu -
You've got a mind like a steel trap. You'll go far.
		ture Indefinite-in-the-Past and the ing-form of the notional verb
No good will come of it.
		1 It can be used in all types of clauses in which the rules of the sequence of tenses
		are observed.

(e.g. / said I should be seeing him often soon. I said he would be seeing her often soon, etc.). In negative sentences the particle not is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. I said I should not be seeing him often now. I said he would not be seeing her often now, etc.). In spoken English the contracted form 'd is used in affirma - tive sentences and the forms shouldn't and wouldn't in negative sentences.

The Future Continuous-in-the-Past generally serves to show that an action which is future from a definite past moment, is ex - pected to take place in the natural course of events. Like the Fu - ture Indefinite-in-the-Past, it is also structurally dependent and is mainly found in object clauses.

e.g. Towards the end of May he had a letter from Rosalind, in which she said that she would soon be announcing her engagement to Ralph Udal.

He said he would be seeing her that evening at the Atkinsons. I felt that in a moment we should be talking soberly like two

old acquaintances.

It should be noted that the application of the Future Con tinuous-in-the-Past is infrequent.

3) The Future Perfect-in-the-Past (should/would have done) denotes an action completed before a definite moment which is future from the point of view of the past. But the form hardly ever occurs in English as it is seldom required by the situation.

e.g. I was afraid that he would have started off by the time I got to the coast.

§ 52. In addition to the Future-in-the-Past there are other means of expressing future actions from the point of view of the past.

1) The Past Continuous is used to express a future-in-the-past action which is definitely settled. The action is expected to take place soon after a definite past moment. The time of its realization is often, though not necessarily, indicated in the sentence by means of adverbial modifiers.

e.g. In the pocket of his dinner-jacket was a letter from Annette. She was coming back in a fortnight.

The last time I saw him, he said he was going on the stage.

2) To be to + infinitive, which is usually treated as a modal phrase, serves, like the Past Continuous, to indicate a previous arrangement, but in addition to that meaning it generally implies obligation resulting from that arrangement.

e.g. I've still got the letter. I was to post it. But of course later I forgot.

He was beside himself with excitement because his book was to be published next month.

"To be to + infinitive" may also serve to express orders or instructions (mainly in reported speech).

e.g. I had already impressed upon her that she was not to men - tion my name to him.

There was a special order that no one was to come to the sta - tion to see the battalion off.

When it denotes a future action viewed from the past, "to

be

to + infinitive" may acquire the meaning of something destined to happen. (This meaning is not found with "to be to + infinitive" when it is used with reference to the actual future.)

e.g. And then came the offer of the research which was to occupy so much of his working life.

At that time I did not know what was to become of me.

3) To be going to + infinitive may have two different meanings: a) Premeditated intention, which means that the person denot -

ed by the subject had been planning for some time to perform the action, that some preparation for the action had been in progress. This use of the "going-to form" is chiefly found in object clauses.

e.g. Finn said he was going to write a letter to his uncle in Ireland. I told George what I was going to say to the Committee.

It is noteworthy that the Past tense of the "going-to form" may, however, be structurally independent, when it occurs in independent sentences. In this case, in addition to premeditated intention, it denotes that the action was not carried out, i.e. the person indicated by the subject was prevented from carrying out his intention.

e.g. He was going to meet you himself, only his car was stolen. It's your birthday, Stan. I was going to keep it a secret until

tonight.

b) The speaker's feeling that the action was unavoidable, that it was imminent. This use of the "going-to form" is mainly found in reported speech.

e.g. If only we knew what was going to happen.

You always thought I was going to die, didn't you?

I knew he was going to regret the day he had ever written that letter.

4) The Past Indefinite may be used in two different cases which are both structurally dependent:

a) With reference to a future action viewed from the past in clauses of time, condition and concession (in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses),

e.g. So when Anna was leaving for France I said to her vaguely that I would look her up when she returned.

Probably she knew that whatever happened he would not

give her away.

I told him if he didn't hurry up he'd get no breakfast.

Note. In clauses other than those of time, condition and concession, the Fu - ture Indefinite-in-the-Past is used even if these clauses are introduced by the conjunctions when and if.

e.g. I asked him if he would stay another week with us.

The time would come when they would all be proud of Tony.

b) In object clauses after one of the past tenses of to see (-= to attend), to take care or to make sure in the principal clause.

e.g. He knew that Rosalind would see that it did not happen. Mother took care that I held myself well.

§ 53. To sum it up, it should be mentioned that though the use of the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past, in theory, is similar to that of the Future Indefinite, its use is actually much wider. The use of the other means of expressing future actions viewed from the past is, on the contrary, much more restricted than the use of the same means with reference to the real future.

The Rules of the Sequence of Tenses

§ 54. In certain types of subordinate clauses the tenses are used relatively, i.e. the tense form does not refer the action to the present, past or future but shows whether the action of the subor - dinate clause is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it.

The choice of the tense form in the subordinate clause depends ion the tense form used in the principal clause. This structurally dependent use of tenses in certain types of clauses is known as the rules of the sequence of tenses.

§ 55. The relative use of tenses is mainly observed in subordinate object clauses.

l) After one of the past forms in the principal clause (includ-

ng the Future-in-the-Past) we find past forms in the subordinate

clause.

If the action of the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the object clause no matter which past form is found in the principal clause (the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, or the Future-in-the-Past).

e.g. Nobody knew what he meant. I thought you were joking.

He had not realized how nervous she was. He would never know what she was thinking.

If the action of the object clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous is used in the object clause no matter which past form is found in the princi - pal clause.

e.g. The people she met seemed to know where she had been, what she had been doing.

He was finally telling them what he had been concealing.

Soames looked at her. He had said that she had not changed; now he perceived that she had.

If the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause, the Future-in-the-Past or one of the other means of ex -

pressing future actions viewed from the past is used in the object clause no matter which past tense-aspect form is found in the principal clause.

e.g. I had feared that my companion would talk too much, but it was soon plain that there was no such danger.

I explained that I was going up to London.

He thought of how wet they were going to get in the rain. She knew that George would be waiting for her.

2) The rules of the sequence of tenses are also observed in object clauses if one of the present forms is used in the principal clause.

If the action of the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause we find either the Present Indefinite or the Present Continuous in it no matter which of the present forms is used in the principal clause.

e.g. Maurice doesn't know what he is doing. "I know just how they feel," said Sophia. I am beginning to think you're a fool.

You've noticed, I daresay, that she travels a good deal. "Adeline has been telling me," he said, "that her father is willing to send her abroad."

If the action of the object clause precedes that of the principal clause we' find the Present Perfect, the Past Indefinite, the Present Perfect Continuous or the Past Continuous in it no matter which of the present forms is used in the principal clause.

e.g. I don't know whether any of you have met her. I don't see why he did it.

I don't want her to see I've been crying.

I ' m beginning to understand why your grandfather left you his house.

If the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause we find one of the future forms or one of the other means of expressing futurity in it no matter which of the present forms is used in the principal clause.

e.g. I don't think he'll ever forgive me for asking these people to come here.

I expect she'll be ringing up again very shortly. I don't know how I'm going to do it.

I've just told everyone that I'm sending him to school this autumn.

She's hoping I shall be back by Monday week.

They haven't even told me who my successor is going to be.

3) The rules of the sequence of tenses are observed in object clauses if one of the future forms or one of the means of express - ing future actions is used in the principal clause.

If the action in the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause we find the Present Indefinite or the Present Continuous in it.

e.g. I am sure we shall find we have quite a lot to say to one another. Sir Walter will tell you that I ' m not exaggerating.

If the action in the object clause precedes that of the principal clause we find the Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite in it.

e.g. Miss Sophia will be glad you've come.

They will ask you when you arrived in New York.

I never liked the idea and I'm not going to say I did.

Oh, come, you're not going to tell me that you've never been in love since you were in love with me.

If the action in the object clause follows that of the principal clause we find one of the future forms or one of the other means of expressing future actions in it.

e.g. I'll tell you what I'll do.

We'll let you know what we are going to do about it.

You are going to say that this will cost you a thousand pounds.

Note 1. Grammars usually say that the choice of the tense form in the subordinate clause is free after a present or a future tense form in the principal clause. This is not quite correct as only the above described forms can be used in this case, their choice being as strict and as regular as after a past tense form in the princi - pal clause.

It is true, the relative use of tense forms is not so obvious after a present tense form in the principal clause since the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking and at first sight the use of tense forms seems to depend only on the sense. However, if we compare the use of tenses in object clauses after a present, past and future tense form it becomes evident that their choice always depends on the tense form of the predicate verb in the principal clause.