- •1. Phonetics as a science
- •2. Articulatory aspect of speech sounds
- •3. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •4. Functional aspect of speech sounds
- •5. Methods of phonological analysis
- •6. Orthorgaphy and its principles
- •7. National language, national variants, dialects
- •8. American English as a national variety of the English language
- •9. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms
- •10. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types
- •11. Received Pronunciation. Changes of vowel and consonant quality
- •12. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England
- •13. Aspects of the phoneme
- •14. Allophones
- •15. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •16. Assimilation
- •17. Accommodation, elision and insertion of consonants
- •18. The problem of affricates
- •19. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the manner of articulation
- •20. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the place of articulation and active organ of speech
- •21. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the degree of noise, work of vocal cords, force of articulation and position of the soft palate
- •22. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the position of the tongue
- •23. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the stability of articulation
- •24. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the lip position, length, tenseness and character of vowel end
- •25. The phonemic status of English diphthongs and triphthongs
- •26. The unstressed vocalism of the English language
- •27. Accommodation and reduction of English vowels
- •28. Classification of syllables
- •29. Theories of the syllable
- •30. Rules of syllable division
- •31. Functions of the syllable
- •32. Word stress and its classification
- •33. English word accentuation tendencies
- •34. Functions of word stress
- •35. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress
- •36. Voice pitch as one of the components of intonation
- •37. Sentence stress
- •38. Temporal and tambral components of intonation
- •39. The communicative function of intonation
- •40. Extralinguistic situation and its components
- •41. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level
- •42. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds
- •43. Style-modifying factors
- •44. Speech culture and speech etiquette
5. Methods of phonological analysis
The aim of P.A. is to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic or non-phonemic and to find inventory of the phonemes of the language.
- distributional method (grouping speech sounds pronounced by native speakers into phonemes according to two laws of phonemic or allophonic distribution):
1st law – allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context;
2nd law – allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context;
+ articulatory features are taken into account: [ng] and [h];
- semantic method (systematic substitution of a sound for another in order to ascertain in which cases where the phonetic context remains the same, such substitution leads to a change of meaning) - communication text: finding minimal pairs; oppositions - single, double, multiple;
- statistical method (to establish the frequency, probability, predictability, occurrence of phonemes and their allophones in different position in the words).
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6. Orthorgaphy and its principles
Orthography is a system of spelling rules.
1. Phonological principle - exactly representing the pronunciation of words in their spelling. Grapheme represents phoneme in writing (constitutive and distinctive function).
2. Differentiating principle - each grapheme may have one or more allographs ('f' and 'ph' for /f/).
3. Morphological derivation principle - preserving the same graphic presentation of a morpheme in different derivatives from the same root or different grammatical forms irrespective of any change in their pronunciation (wanted, opened, asked).
4. Traditional (conservative or historical) principle - preserving such spelling that existed in earlier periods of historical development of the language (knight, brought, laugh, diacritic function - showing the quality of preceding V).
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7. National language, national variants, dialects
National language is the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language of a nation’s literature.
Standard is a socially accepted variety of a language established by a codified norm of correctness.
En-En – Received Pronunciation.
American English – General American pronunciation.
Australian English – Educated Australian.
Bilingualism – two different languages form the repertoire of the community.
Monolingualism – one national language.
Dialect – differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
Accent – varieties only in pronunciation.
Diglossia - a state of linguistic duality in which the standard literary form of a language and one of its regional dialects are used by the same individual in different social situations.
Social dialects – varieties spoken by a socially limited number of people.
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8. American English as a national variety of the English language
AmE: GenAm (from Ohio through the Middle West to the Pacific ocean), EastAm (Boston, New England, NYC), SouthAm (VA, NC, SC, TN, FL, GA).
Features:
- retroflex pronunciation of [r];
- dark [ƚ];
- short voices [t] b/w [d] and [r];
- t-glottalization;
- [ʍ] instead of [w],
- pre-head: RP - descending, GA - medium level;
- nucleus: RP - low fall, GA - rise-fall;
- no strict division of vowels into long and short,
- in French borrowing stress on the last syllable.
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