- •1. Phonetics as a science
- •2. Articulatory aspect of speech sounds
- •3. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •4. Functional aspect of speech sounds
- •5. Methods of phonological analysis
- •6. Orthorgaphy and its principles
- •7. National language, national variants, dialects
- •8. American English as a national variety of the English language
- •9. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms
- •10. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types
- •11. Received Pronunciation. Changes of vowel and consonant quality
- •12. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England
- •13. Aspects of the phoneme
- •14. Allophones
- •15. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •16. Assimilation
- •17. Accommodation, elision and insertion of consonants
- •18. The problem of affricates
- •19. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the manner of articulation
- •20. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the place of articulation and active organ of speech
- •21. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the degree of noise, work of vocal cords, force of articulation and position of the soft palate
- •22. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the position of the tongue
- •23. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the stability of articulation
- •24. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the lip position, length, tenseness and character of vowel end
- •25. The phonemic status of English diphthongs and triphthongs
- •26. The unstressed vocalism of the English language
- •27. Accommodation and reduction of English vowels
- •28. Classification of syllables
- •29. Theories of the syllable
- •30. Rules of syllable division
- •31. Functions of the syllable
- •32. Word stress and its classification
- •33. English word accentuation tendencies
- •34. Functions of word stress
- •35. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress
- •36. Voice pitch as one of the components of intonation
- •37. Sentence stress
- •38. Temporal and tambral components of intonation
- •39. The communicative function of intonation
- •40. Extralinguistic situation and its components
- •41. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level
- •42. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds
- •43. Style-modifying factors
- •44. Speech culture and speech etiquette
28. Classification of syllables
According to syllable division:
(Vassilyev)
- open (CV): me, no;
- closed (VC): it, on, end.
(Sokolova, Arakin)
- fully open (V): are, or;
- fully closed (CVC): rat, trap;
- covered at the beginning (CV): so, dry;
- covered at the end (VC): old, act.
According to the length:
- short - one mora (book);
- long - two moras (foot).
According to the change of pitch:
- even pitch;
- changes of pitch (fall-rise, rise-fall).
According to the force of utterance:
- stressed;
- unstressed.
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29. Theories of the syllable
1. Expiratory T. (chest-pulse, pressure) by R.H. Stetson.
Each syllable = single expiration. Each vowel sound is pronounced with a fresh expiration. The syllabic boundary is at the point where a fresh expiratory pulse begins.
2. Sonority T. (prominence) by Otto Jespersen, R.I. Avanesov.
Sonority - an acoustic property of speech sounds which determines this or that degree of their perceptibility (vowels, semi-vowels, frictionless continuants, voiced fricatives, voiced stops, voiceless fricatives, voiceless stops). A syllable contains one "peak" of sonority separated from other peaks by "valleys" of lower sonority.
The sonority theory can only explain why this sequence consists of two syllables, but it cannot explain by what means and at what points it is divided into syllables in two different ways.
3. T. of muscular tension by L.V. Shcherba, A.V. Vasilyev.
Sounds in connected speech are pronounced with alternative intensification and slackening of muscular tension. Each peak of intensification with the following slackening of tension forms a syllable. Sounds that are pronounced with intensification of muscular tension are termed pitch sounds. The syllable is an arc of articulatory tension. The pitch sound is the center of the syllable and of the arc of tension (vowel or sonorant).
4. Loudness T. by N.I. Zhinkin.
The syllable is an arc of articulatory effort. The arc of loudness of perception level is formed due to variations of the volume of the pharyngeal passage, which is modified by contractions of its walls. The narrowing of the passage and the increase in muscular tension reinforce the actual loudness of a vowel, forming the peak of the syllable.
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30. Rules of syllable division
According to phonological principles: C, representing the point of syllable division, should be added to the next V (re-gu-lar, bo-dy, fa-mi-ly).
According to morphological principles: prefixal and suffixal morphemes are divided from the root one (ir-regul-ar, re-fresh-ment).
According to phonetic principles:
- point of syllable division after stressed long monophthongs, dipthongs and diphthongoids (carpet['kɑː.pɪt], greeting ['griː.tɪŋ]);
- when a short stressed V followed by one C - after or inside the intervocalic C;
- when a short stressed V is followed by a C-cluster - anywhere (['ek.strə], ['eks.trə], ['ekst.rə]);
- when the unstressed short V is separated from a succeeding stressed one by a single C
(before [bɪ.'fɔː], idea [aɪ.'dɪə]);
- when V is separated by a cluster of two Cs (if possible in initial position - before the cluster [ə.'brɔːd], if not - inside [əd.'mɪt]),
- post-tonic - no practical importance.
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