The Subsidiary Sources

3. Customs

Customs are social habits, patterns of behaviour, which all societies evolve. In a sense custom should be accorded as one of the principal sources of law for much, if not most, law was originally based upon it. Moreover custom is not solely important as a source of law, for even today some customary rules are observed in their own right and they command almost as much obedience as rules of law proper; they only differ from rules of law in that their observance is not enforced by the organs of the State. Thus, it will be seen that many of the fundamental rules governing the Constitution are 'conventional' (i.e. customary), rather than legal, rules.

4. Books of authority

On the Continent the writings of legal authors form an important source of law. In England, in accordance with the tradition that the law is to be sought in judicial decisions, their writings have in the past been treated with comparatively little respect. They have been cited in court, if citied at all, rather by way of evidence of what the law is that as independent sources from which it may be derived.

This general rule has, however, always been subject to certain recognized exceptions; for there are certain ‘books of authority’, written by authors of outstanding eminence, which may not only be cited as independent sources in themselves for the law of their times but which also carry a weight of authority almost equal to that of precedents.

In modern times the established tradition appears to have been breaking down, because many textbooks are now in practice constantly cited in the courts, though only the best of them are likely to command attention.

Vocabulary

absorb v поглощать

accord v предоставлять

actuality n факты, действительность

adopt v принимать

anchor n якорь

apply v применять, принимать; to apply an enactment принять закон

arbitrary adj, syn random произвольный; in arbitrary way произвольно

ascertainable adj выясняемый, устанавливаемый

assimilate v усваивать

authority n источник права; прецедент; судебное решение; books of authority источники права; сборники судебных решений; авторитетные учебники по праву

bear a/ no resemblance to иметь / не иметь сходства с

break down v нарушать

call upon v предоставлять слово

case n судебное дело; судебный прецедент;

binding case обязательный прецедент; прецедент, имеющий обязательную

силу

case-law n, case law прецедентное право

case of the first impression дело, по которому не имеется прецедентов

cast v бросать, сбрасывать

cease v прекращать

cite v syn quote цитировать

Civil Law n (часто прописью) римское право

civil law n (всегда строчными буквами) гражданское право

code n кодекс (a systematic written collection of laws on a particular subject or area

of law), код; Code Napoleon кодекс Наполеона

codify v кодифицировать

command v располагать, внушать

common law n общее право

consider a legal matter рассматривать/обсуждать дело

considered принимая во внимание; с точки зрения

construe v использовать

conventional adj традиционный, обычный

counsel n 1 адвокат; 2 советник; 3 барристер

court n суд; судья; судьи; superior court вышестоящий суд

cover v охватывать; распространять своё действие

custom n обычай

customary adj обычный; customary duty обязанность, основанная

на традициях / обычаях

declarer n тот, кто объясняет/ объявляет

deductive adj дедуктивный (от общего к частному)

departure n отклонение

desuetude n неупотребление; устарелость (закона, обычая);

to fall into desuetude выходить из употребления

discretion n компетенция; усмотрение

divergent adj расходящийся, отклоняющийся

doctrine n доктрина, принцип; doctrine of precedent доктрина прецедента

embody v воплощать; содержать

embrace v включать, охватывать

eminence n знаменитость

enact v принимать закон; вводить закон; enactment n 1 принятие закона;

2 нормативный акт; legislative enactment законодательный акт;

enacted body of rules принятая совокупность правил/норм

enforce v обеспечивать соблюдение; to enforce law принимать правовую

норму / закон

enshrine v помещать в

establish v устанавливать

evidence n 1 свидетельство; свидетельские показания; 2 доказательства

evolve v развиваться; эволюционировать

fashion n образ

hallmark n отличительный признак

hierarchical adj иерархический

inductively adv индуктивно (от частного к общему)

inferior adj низший, подчинённый; нижестоящий

infinitely adv бесконечно

injustice n несправедливость; отказ в правосудии

involve v влечь за собой, вызывать

issue n 1 вопрос, дело; 2 опубликование

judge n судья

judicial decision n судебное решение

judicial precedent n судебный прецедент

Justinian’s legislation законодательство Юстиниана (527-565); Свод законов

Юстиниана

law n 1 право; 2 закон

law reports сборник судебных решений

leave of the Court разрешение суда

legislate v издавать законы; legislation законодательство;

legislation is enacted law законодательство – это введённый в действие / силу

закон; legislatively adv в законодательном порядке; legislator n законодатель

litigation n тяжба; судебный процесс

mantle n покров

mercantile [merchant] law n торговое право

mislead v (give wrong impression to) вводить в заблуждение;

a misleading statement заявление, вводящее в заблуждение

mould v формировать

multitude n множество

onwards adv вперёд

Parliament n парламент

partnership n товарищество

pattern n образец

power n 1 право; полномочие; 2 власть

practitioner n практикующий юрист

precedent n прецедент

predominent adj доминирующий

preponderate v преобладать

private law n частное право

promulgate v обнародовать; провозглашать

public law n публичное право

realm n королевство; власть

reduce v превращать

reliance n доверие,

reported decision n решение, включённое в сборник судебных решений

rival n соперник; конкурент

rule n норма

salient adj выдающийся

sense n смысл; in a sense в некотором смысле; до некоторой степени

solely adv только, исключительно

solemnity n важность

source n источник; principal sources основные источники;

subsidiary sources дополнительные источники

sovereign n суверен; обладатель полноты власти; монарх

statute n статут, закон

submission n 1 аргумент, довод, утверждение; 2 представление, подача

(документа)

subsequent adj последующий, следующий

subsume v включать (в какую-либо категорию)

supersede v сменять, заменять, отменять

therefore adv за это, поэтому, следовательно

try v разбирать; расследовать; рассматривать

ultimate adj последний, окончательный

vest v наделять; облекать; пользоваться

wholesale adj оптовый, массовый, в массовом масштабе

wrought (used in the past tense only) причинять, вызывать; оказывать действие

Reading tasks

Answer these questions.

1. What are the two main categories of sources of law?

2. What category of law prevails in England?

3. Is all law which is written defined as ‘written law’?

4. Is any ‘unwritten law’ in fact written?

5. Is most English law written in a code?

6. Is most Continental law generally written or unwritten?

7. What are the four sources of English law?

8. Who makes legislation in England?

9. What is a doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty?

10. Can the English courts influence the effect of legislation?

11. Has English law developed (1) from fixed general rules? or (2) through

decisions in individual cases?

12. How can you characterize the doctrine of the binding case?

13. What are customs?

14. Is custom important as a source of law (1) in the history of the law (2) in

England today?

15. What is the law relating to the sale of goods?

16. Are books of authority more important as a source of law in England or on the Continent?

17. What is a tendency concerning books of authority in England in modern times?

Vocabulary tasks

The word LEGAL has the following meanings in Russian:

1) юридический

legal person – юридическое лицо

2) правовой

legal text – правовой текст

3) судебный

legal action – судебный иск

4) законный, дозволенный законом

legal owner – законный владелец

5) легальный

legal activities – правомерная, законная деятельность

A Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.

1 legal activities	a	законные права
2 legal address	b	законный владелец
3 legal advice	c	имеющий законную силу
4 legal age	d	использовать своё законное право
5 legal costs	e	история права
6 legal decision	f	консультация юриста
7 legal document	g	правовая защита
8 legal entity	h	правовой документ
9 legal ethics	i	правовой статус
10 legal expert	j	правомерная, законная деятельность
11 legal history	k	профессиональная этика юриста
12 legal language	l	решение суда
13 legal owner	m	совершеннолетие
14 legal procedure	n	стать юристом
15 legal protection	o	судебные издержки
16 legal rights	p	судопроизводство
17 legal status	q	юридическая терминология
18 of legal force	r	юридический адрес
19 to enjoy one’s legal rights	s	юридическое лицо
20 to enter the legal profession	t	юрисконсульт; юридический советник

D Match these sources of law with the description below.

Common law Roman Law

Napoleonic code The Ten Commandments

1) ________, which evolved in the 8^th century BC, was still largely a blend of custom and interpretation by magistrates of the will of the gods. 2) ________ evolved from the tribal and local laws in England. It began with common customs, but over time it involved the courts in law-making that was responsible to changes in society. In this way the Anglo-Norman rulers created a system of centralized courts that operated under a single set of laws that replaced the rules laid down by earlier societies. 3) ________ formed the basis of all Isreelite legislation. They can also be found in the laws of other ancient peoples. 4) ________ refers to the entire body of French law, contained in five codes dealing with civil, commercial, anf criminal law.

E Are the following sentences about the sources of law true or false?

1. The Ten Commandments are based on moral standards of behaviour.

2. In common law, judges resolve disputes by referring to statutory principles arrived at in advance.

3. Roman law is based on the principles of deciding cases by reference to previous judicial decisions, rather than to written statutes by legislative bodies.

4. The Napoleonic Code was introduced into a number of European countries, notably Belgium, where it is still in force. It also became the model for the civil codes of Quebec Province in Canada, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, some Latin American republics, and the state of Louisiana.

F Complete the following passage to check that you have understood the text so far and can use the new vocabulary. For ezch blank space choose the correct word from the list below. Use each word once only.

The Importance of Legislation as a Source in English and Continental Law

In many 1) continental countries much of the law is 2) ________. For this reason there is more written, or 3) ________ law than 4) ________ law. In contrast, there is no general code of 5) ________ law. Still, 6) ________ is common, and many areas of law, e.g. 7) ________ are codified, but 8) ________ is the main source of the law.

Choose from:

a partnership b enacted c Continental d unwritten

e English f judicial precedent g legislation h codified

Over to you

Use your own knowledge and information from the text to compare the following:

• codification of law on the Continent and in England

• codification of law in your country and in England

• written sources of law on the Continent and in your country

• written sources of law in your country and in England

• unwritten sources of law in England and in your country

Examples

‘Many continental countries have codified their law, whereas this has not happened in England. In fact, only some areas of English law, such as the sale of goods, are codified.’

‘In England most of the law is unwritten and the same is true in my country. In fact the principal sources of law in the legal system in my country are…’

Write your comparisons down.