4. Scotland Geography

The geography of Scotland is highly varied, from rural lowlands to barren uplands, and from large cities to uninhabited islands. Located in north-west Europe, Scotland comprises the northern one third of the island of Great Britain. Aside from the mainland, Scotland is surrounded by 790 islands encompassing the major archipelagoes of the Shetland Islands, Orkney Islands and the Outer Hebrides

Scotland's only land border is with England, which runs for 96 kilometres in a northeasterly direction from the Solway Firth in the west to the North Sea on the east coast. Separated by the North Channel, the island of Ireland lies 30 kilometres from the southwest tip of the Scottish mainland. Norway is located 305 kilometres to the northeast of Scotland across the North Sea. The Atlantic Ocean, which fringes the coastline of western and northern Scotland and its islands, influences the temperate, maritime climate of the country

The topography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault – a geological rock fracture – which traverses the Scottish mainland from Helensburgh to Stonehaven The faultline separates two distinctively different physiographic regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous terrain, including the highest peak, Ben Nevis. Lowland areas, in the southern part of Scotland, are flatter and home to most of the population, especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, although Edinburgh is the capital and political centre of the country.

An abundance of natural resources such as coal, iron and zinc contributed significantly to the industrial growth of Scotland during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, energy is a major component of Scotland's economy. Whilst Scotland is the largest producer of petroleum in the European Union, the production potential of renewable energy has emerged as an important economic and environmental issue in recent years

The land area of Scotland is 78,772 km2 , roughly 30% of the area of the United Kingdom (UK). The mainland of Scotland has 9,911 km (6,158 mi) of coastline.

The geomorphology of Scotland was formed by the action of tectonic plates, and subsequent erosion arising from glaciation. The major division of Scotland is the Highland Boundary Fault, which separates the land into 'highland' to the north and west, and 'lowland' to the south and east. The Highlands of Scotland are largely mountainous, and form the highest ground in the UK: they are bisected by the Great Glen into the Grampian Mountains to the southeast and the Northwest Highlands. The Scottish Lowlands can be further subdivided into the Southern Uplands, an area of rolling farmland and high moorland, and the lowland farmland of the Central Belt and eastern Scotland.

Scotland has an incomparable variety of geology for an area of its size. It is also the origin of many significant discoveries and important figures in the development of the science.

The oldest rocks of Scotland are the Lewisian gneisses, which were formed in the Precambrian period, up to 3,000 Ma (Mega annum or million years ago). They are among the oldest rocks in the world. During the Precambrian, the Torridonian sandstones and the Moine were also laid down. Further sedimentary deposits were formed through the Cambrian period, some of which metamorphosed into the Dalradian series. The area which would become Scotland was at this time close to the south pole.

During the Silurian period (439-409 Ma), the area which became Scotland was part of the continent of Laurentia. Across the Iapetus ocean to the south, was the continent of Baltica. The two continents gradually collided, joining Scotland to the area which would become England and Europe. This event is known as the Caledonian Orogeny, and the Highland Boundary Fault marks this stitching together of continents. Silurian rocks form the Southern Uplands of Scotland, which was pushed up from the seabed during the collision. The highlands were also pushed up as a result of this collision, and may have been as high as the modern-day Alps at this time. The Old Red Sandstones were laid down in low-lying areas during this period. Volcanic activity occurred across Scotland as a result of the collision of the tectonic plates, with volcanoes in southern Scotland, and magma chambers in the north, which today form the granite mountains such as the Cairngorms.

During the Carboniferous period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The coal deposits of Lanarkshire, and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh, among other hills. By the Triassic, Scotland was a desert, the origin of large sandstone outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the chalks of England.

By the Tertiary period, the tectonic plates were again moving, separating into modern-day North America and Europe with the creation of the Atlantic Ocean. The split occurred to the west of Scotland, leaving a chain of former volcanic sites through the Hebrides, including Skye and St. Kilda. This was the last period of rock formation in Scotland. Since then, several ice ages have shaped the land through glacial erosion, creating u-shaped valleys and depositing boulder clays. In the present day, Scotland continues to move slowly north.

Physical geography

Extreme points

The extreme points of the Scottish mainland are:

North: Easter Head, Dunnet Head, Caithness

East: Keith Inch, Peterhead, Aberdeenshire

South: Mull of Galloway, Dumfries and Galloway

West: Corrachadh Mòr, Ardnamurchan (headland), Lochaber

It is often yet incorrectly stated that John o' Groats is the most northerly point of mainland Scotland. The pre-Union phrase "John o' Groats to Maidenkirk" was the Scottish equivalent of the British Land's End to John o' Groats.

The extreme points of Scotland, including outlying islands, are:

North: Out Stack, north of Unst, Shetland Islands

East: Bound Skerry, Out Skerries, Shetland Islands

South: Mull of Galloway, Dumfries and Galloway

West: Either Rockall (annexed in 1972 to the former Inverness-shire), the international status of which is disputed, or Soay, St. Kilda, Western Isles

The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch, far to the north of the modern population heartlands.

Land use

The total land area of Scotland is 7,710,000 hectares. Crops and fallow land account for 7 per cent of the land area, grasses and rough grazing 67%, other agricultural land 2per cent, forest and woodland 17 per cent, and urban development 8 per cent.

Topography, mountains and hills

Ben Nevis is the highest peak in Great Britain.

Scotland contains the most mountainous terrain in Great Britain. Much of the highest uplands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian ranges. The Cuillin on the Isle of Skye, represents a major mountain range that is not located on the Scottish mainland. Located at the western end of the Grampian Mountains, at an altitude of 1,344 m , Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Scotland and Great Britain. Ben Macdui and Braeriach are, respectively, the second and third tallest peaks in Scotland.

Mountains in Scotland are categorised by their height. Peaks over 914.4 m are known as Munros. There are 284 Munros in Scotland, all within the Highlands.[12] Corbetts are peaks with an altitude of between 2,500 and 3,000 ft (762.0 and 914.4 m), with a relative height of at least 152.4 m. The classification of peaks in Scotland is kept under periodic review by the Scottish Mountaineering Club.

Topographically, mainland Scotland can be divided into three main areas which reflect the underlying geology. These are divided from one another by south-west to north east lines that roughly parallel the artificial line representing the English Border.

Southern Uplands

The southern 20% or so of the country makes up the Southern Uplands, a pastoral upland area characterised by lines of hills divided by broad valleys. It is also home to some of the most remote and least populated areas in Scotland and to the country's highest village, Wanlockhead, at 467 m or 1,532 ft.

The Pentland Hills and the Lammermuir Hills are several of the local ranges which make up the Southern Uplands. In addition to the main upland zones in southern Scotland there are many individual hills, not part of any range. Several of these elevations are volcanic in origin and are known by the Scots word Law, meaning hill. North Berwick Law and Traprain Law are two examples of these extinct volcanic outliers.

The Southern Uplands fault line running north-east from near Girvan in Ayrshire, to the North Sea near Dunbar separates the Southern Uplands from the Central Lowlands.

Central Lowlands

The Central Lowlands can be thought of, very roughly, as the next 80% of the country as you progress north from the English Border and include the Forth-Clyde valley. The Central Lowlands were also the home of widespread industrialization from the late 18th century onwards. This was based on the large and widely scattered reserves of coal and iron ore found across most of the Central Lowlands, whose use was supported by the development of canals and then of railways. Deep-mined coal and large scale iron and steel works are no longer part of the picture in Scotland

The Sidlaw Hills to the north of Dundee, the Ochils to the east of Stirling and the Campsie Fells to the north of Glasgow constitute important upland ranges in the Central Lowlands.

Highlands

By far the largest zone, the Highlands comprises the north western 60% of Scotland. Technically this includes everywhere north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, a fault line running from Arran and Helensburgh in the West to Stonehaven in the east. Scotland's third largest city, Aberdeen, lies just to the north of the Highland Boundary Fault, but like the fertile plains of eastern Aberdeenshire it has more in common with the Central Lowlands than with the rest of the Highlands

The Highlands are extensive mountainous areas rising to peaks of a maximum height of around 1300m. Scotland's mountains are not high by international standards but their exposure to highly changeable and unpredictable weather patterns influenced by the meeting of Atlantic and European air streams gives them a seriousness out of proportion to their height.

The area of the Highlands is split in two by the line of the Great Glen, a rift valley running from Fort William to Inverness. The land to the north west of the Great Glen is usually referred to as the North West Highlands, with that to its east forming the Grampians. The Grampians are characterised by large areas of upland plateau, while the North West Highlands have a much rougher, rockier look and feel, with the landmass deeply indented by numerous sea lochs.

The climate of Scotland is temperate and very changeable, but rarely extreme. Scotland is warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and given the northerly location of the country, experiences much milder conditions than areas on similar latitudes, such as Labrador in Canada—where icebergs are a common feature in winter.

Average temperatures are lower than in the rest of Great Britain, with the coldest ever UK temperature of −27.2 °C recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on January 10, 1982 and also at Altnaharra, Highland, on December 30, 1995. Winter maximums average 5.0 to 5.7 °C , with summer maximums averaging 14.9 to 16.9 °C. Western coastal areas of Scotland are warmer than the east and inland areas, due to the influence of the Atlantic currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. The highest temperature recorded was 32.9 °C at Greycrook in the Scottish Borders on August 9, 2003.

Rainfall totals vary widely across Scotland—the western highlands of Scotland are one of the wettest places in the UK with annual rainfall up to 4,577 mm. Due to the mountainous topography of the western Highlands, this type of precipitation is orographic in nature, with the warm, wet air forced to rise on contact with the mountainous coast, where it consequently, cools and condenses, forming clouds. In comparison, much of eastern Scotland receives less than 870 mm (34.3 in) annually; lying in the rain shadow of the western uplands.[18] Snowfall is less common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Parts of the Highlands have an average of 36 to 105 snow days per year, while some western coastal areas have between 0 and 6 days with snow a year.

The Hebridean island of Tiree received a total of 329 hours of sunshine in May 1946 and again in May 1975, the highest number of sunshine hours ever recorded in one month in Scotland. On the longest day of the year there is no complete darkness over the northern isles of Scotland. Lerwick, in Shetland, has four hours more daylight at midsummer than London, although this is reversed in midwinter. Annual average sunshine totals vary from as little as 711–1140 hours in the Highlands and the north-west up to 1471–1540 hours on the extreme eastern and south-western coasts.

In common with the rest of the British Isles, wind prevails from the south-west, bringing warm, wet and unstable air from the Atlantic. The windiest areas of Scotland are in the north and west, with parts of the Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland experiencing over 30 days with gales per year. Vigorous Atlantic depressions, also known as European windstorms, are a common feature of the autumn and winter in Scotland.

Scottish Cities

Edinburgh

Edinburgh is the capital and second largest city in Scotland. Founded on Castle Rock by ancient British tribes who utilised the strategic elevated position of the volcanic rock. It is named after Edwin, King of Northumbria in the 7th century. Edinburgh did not develop into a town until the 11th century, but it soon grew and in 1532 it was declared Scotland's capital.

Edinburgh Castle has been the home of Scottish Royalty for many centuries. The Scottish Crown Jewels are kept in the Old Royal Palace, and it was here, in a small cramped room, that Mary Queen of Scots gave birth to the future King James VI. Inside the castle walls is the 11th century St Margaret's Chapel. Built in 1076, this is the oldest roofed building in Scotland. The castle is open to visitors and guided tours are given regularly.

The city itself is broken up into two sections: the Old Town and the New Town. The narrow medieval streets of the Old Town stretch east from Castle Hill to Holyrood Abbey. Many medieval buildings are here, including the Parliament House, St Giles Cathedral, the house of John Knox, and Brodie's Close. The New Town is just north of the castle. It was built in the early 19th century and contains many elegant streets lined with Georgian buildings. A beautiful view of impressive Castle hill can be seen from Princes Street. At night this view is even more spectacular.

Edinburgh contains many art galleries and museums. The National Gallery of Scotland, in the New Town, is by far the most impressive. A large collection of European and British paintings from the Renaissance to the 20th century are on display. Famous artists include Rembrandt, Van Gogh, Ramsay and Raphael. Today Edinburgh is a lively city and a huge cultural centre.

Glasgow

Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and in its prime it was often referred to as the 'Second Capital'. Glasgow was founded in the 6th century by St Mungo. He built a church here and the town slowly grew around it. Glasgow grew over the centuries and by 1450 it was declared a city. The city gained wealth and importance during the Industrial Revolution due to its iron and steel production. Glasgow grew even more after the Union of Parliaments was signed in 1707 and trade with America made the huge port famous. Glasgow's importance began to decline in the 20th century beginning with the Depression in the 1930's. Today the city is a successful centre of modern technology. Glasgow offers a full range of entertainment throughout the year. The Royal Scottish Opera, the Scottish National Orchestra and the Scottish Ballet can all be found here. The Mayfest is a three week long festival featuring ballet, art, opera and music. Large Folk Festivals run through June and July and the World Pipe Band Championships are held in August. Glasgow Cathedral was built mainly in the 13th century at the site of the original church built by St Mungo. His tomb can be seen in the Lower Church under an impressive fan vaulted ceiling. One of the cathedral's most splendid features is the 15th century stone screen with impressions of the Seven Deadly Sins carved on its corbels. In the centre of the city, on the banks of the River Clyde, is one of Britain's oldest parks, Glasgow Green. The People's Palace Social History Museum can be found here. Collections of Glasgow's art dating from 1175 to the present day are on display. The Burrell Museum is three miles south of the city in Pollock Country Park. The museum's collection was given to Glasgow by Sir William Burrell, a wealthy industrialist who died in 1958. The collection is massive, including silver, bronzes, Oriental jade, furniture, tapestries, prints, needlework and paintings.

Dundee

Situated on the north side of the Firth of Tay. Dundee is the administrative centre for the Tayside Region of east Scotland and the country's fourth largest city.

Dundee was a famous ship building centre in the 18th century. Today it is an industrial city that has many sights on its famed port. On the waterfront two historic ships can be seen. The H.M.S. Unicorn is a wooden ship of 46 guns that was built in 1824. The Unicorn is the oldest British warship still afloat and it is still fitted as it was on its last voyage. One of the last of the original sailing ships made in Britain is the Discovery. It was a research ship built in 1901 that was used by Captain Scott on two expeditions to Antarctica. It is now anchored at Craig Pier and is open for tours. The McManus Galleries are located in Albert Square. The gallery exhibits collections of Victorian art and archaeological materials of the area. Outside the gallery is a statue of the famous poet Robert Burns.

The city is linked to the south side of the Firth by rail and road bridges.

The Howff Burial Ground is located just north of the city square. This land was once an orchard to a monastery, until it was destroyed in 1548. It became a burial ground in 1564, when Mary, Queen of Scots, gave the land to the town. For three centuries the Howff has been the chief burial ground for the area.

Perth

Perth lies beside the River Tay in the Tayside region, it is the smallest of Scotland's cities. The Scottish Parliament met there on occasions and it was the home of many Scottish kings. Perth is an historical city that was once the capital of medieval Scotland. The city had religious importance because it was the home to the large monasteries of the Black Friars, the Grey Friars, the White Friars and the Carthusian's. These monasteries were destroyed after the sermons of John Knox in 1559 when he launched the Scottish reformation from the pulpit of St John's Kirk.

The central part of the town is located between two large parks known as the North Inch and the South Inch. A plaque can be found just to the south of the North Inch reminding all of the violence that occurred at this site. It was here that the Black Friars Monastery was destroyed. James I was assassinated here by Sir Robert Graham in 1437. In 1396, the area was the location of violent judicial fighting between Clans. The Fair Maid's House is said to be the oldest house in Perth. Sir Walter Scott chose this as the fictional home of Catherine Glover, the heroine of The Fair Maid of Perth. The house now serves as a craft shop. Scone Palace can be found a few miles north of Perth. Between the 9th and 13th centuries the sacred Stone of Destiny was guarded here. It was seized by Edward I in the 13th century and kept in Westminster Abbey until recently when it was returned to Scotland.

Aberdeen

Aberdeen has grown considerably since 1972 and is now the third largest city in Scotland. There is much here for visitors who have an interest in history and art. The oldest house in Aberdeen is Provost Skene's House. Built in 1545, it was once the home of Sir George Skene, a mayor of Aberdeen in the 17th century. Two hundred years of design can be seen inside the period rooms. The Aberdeen Maritime Museum is located in Shiprow, overlooking the harbour. Exhibitions trace the local seafaring history of Aberdeen. Displays on shipwrecks, fishing, shipbuilding, wrecks and rescues, and the workings of the oil fields can be found here. The Art Gallery features collections of 18th to 20th century art. The decorative arts collection is comprised mostly of Aberdonian silver. Collections of jewellery, ceramics, tapestries and glass can all be seen here. St. Machar's Cathedral is a 15th century granite structure built by Bishop Lichtoun. The stonework of one of the arches dates back to the 14th century. The nave currently serves as the parish church. The oak ceiling is covered with 48 shields from Pope Leo X, St. Margaret, and many kings, bishops and nobles of Scotland Marischal College was founded in 1593 by George Keith, the 5th Earl Marischal. In 1906, Marishcal College joined with King's College and formed Aberdeen University. In Mitchell Hall a window can be seen that illustrates the history of the University. This section of the college is open to visitors.

Inverness

Often referred to as the 'capital' of the highlands Inverness is the northernmost major city of Scotland. Once a small village nestling on the shores of the River Ness, Inverness is today a thriving, modern town and commercial centre. The heart of the town offers a wide variety of shopping experiences from the ubiquitous souvenir shops to famous high street retailers like Marks & Spencer. Inverness boasts some of the finest traditional kilt making shops in Scotland and no holiday would be complete without a visit to watch the most famous of all Scottish garments being made. Enjoy a short stroll along the banks of the River Ness, taking in the beautiful St. Andrew's Cathedral, famous for it's unfinished twin spires

Scottish Cultural Interests

The Romans invaded Britain in the 1st century AD, they added southern Britain to their empire as the province Britannia. They were unable though, to subdue the fierce tribes in the north. A massive wall was built across the island from sea to sea on demand by the Emperor Hadrian, to keep these tribes from invading Britannia. Parts of this Hadrian's Wall still stand on the Scottish border today.

Scotland sport

The national football team of Scotland has played international football longer than any other nation in the world along with England. Scotland competed against England in the world's first international football match at the West of Scotland Cricket Club, Patrick, in 1872, the match ended 0-0.

Scotland Music

Scottish music comes in many forms. First of all there are the summer shows you will find throughout Scotland, mostly aimed at tourists. These shows host a predominance of tartan, bagpipes, highland dancing, comedy and songs of hills and heather - essentially the image many tourists have of Scotland. They follow a successful recipe made famous by the television series 'The White Heather Club' broadcast in the 1960s.

Sir James Barrie, was born on 9 May 1860 in Scotland and died on 19 June 1937 in London, England. He was a dramatist and novelist who was probably best known for his fiction, Peter Pan, the boy who refused to grow up. He studied at the University of Edinburgh and spent quite a while on the Nottingham Journal before he set off to London as a free-lance writer in 1885.

Scotland Festivals

Founded in 1947, the Edinburgh International Festival is an annual festival held in celebration of the arts. From reasonably humble beginnings over fifty years ago, it is now seen as one of the most significant celebrations of the arts in the world.

Every year, an average of 217 000 people gather at Edinburgh Castle in order to watch the famous Military Tattoo. Begun in the year 1950 with just eight items in the program, the Military Tattoo has gone from strength to strength over the years. Now an average of 1000 participants strutting their stuff at Edinburgh Castle are regularly watched on television by millions of people world wide.

The Hogmanay Festival is essentially a new years celebration with a difference. This festival takes place on the 31st of December every year and is phenomenally well supported and raucous. It's a ticketed festival that starts quite early in the evening reaching its peak as expected at midnight with the ringing of bells and plenty of kissing. Then old folk song 'Auld Lang Syne' is sung and followed by more kissing.

There are a number of Highland Games held through the highlands Scotland. Many of them have been taking place for so long that it is unknown when they were started or why. Today, however, they provide a showcase of traditional sporting events that are participated in and enjoyed by people of all nationalities.

Every summer a unique four-day celebration is held in the Hebrides of Scotland. This musical festival is eagerly awaited by locals and tourists alike and it has grown in popularity at a remarkable rate since its inception in 1995. Despite its relative youth, the Hebridean Celtic Festival is the largest Celtic festival in the north of Scotland and it is a showcase of top Celtic talents.

Every year people gather from all over the world to enjoy the Edinburgh International Jazz & Blues Festival. This is the biggest jazz event in Britain and it is generally held over ten days during the summer months in Scotland. More...

If the delicate sounds of the harp soothe your mind and body, you might be interested in attending the Edinburgh Harp Festival held in summer months in Edinburgh, Scotland. The festival was first held in 1982 and it offers a little something for everyone. It is usually held in the surroundings of the Merchiston Castle School.

Some Scottish Customs and Traditions are important to us and some are marked every year in our diaries.

St Andrews Day - is celebrated on 30th November every year.

Christmas Traditions - a Scottish Christmas is very similar to Christmas throughout the world.

Hogmanay and New Year –

The practice of 'First-Footing' and having a Ceilidh is still so popular today and of course the singing of Auld Lang Syne has been one that has been adopted throughout the world

Burns Night - the 25th January is the day where Scots throughout the world celebrate the life and work of our famous poet Rabbie Burns with a Burns Supper.

Valentine's Day - is on 14th February. It is interesting to note that the remains of St Valentine are believed to be in Glasgow. Learn a bit more about Valentine's Day in Scotland.

Mothers' Day or Mothering Sunday" is celebrated on the fourth Sunday of Lent (exactly three weeks before Easter Sunday) in Scotland and the rest of the UK.

Easter - is celebrated here as it is in every Christian country, so it can hardly be described specifically as ourely Scottish Customs and Traditions. One tradition, however, is to have a special family meal on Easter Sunday, the main course almost always being roast lamb.

Food and Drink

Many Scottish Customs and Traditions are centred around our food such as the "Piping in of the Haggis" at a Burns Supper. There are so many famous Scottish dishes that are famous around the world, from the Haggis, to the lovely crumbly shortbread, or delicious scones and homemade raspberry jam; from Cullen Skink, the famous fish soup and Scotch Broth, to the Forfar Bridie, the famous Scotch Pie and Lorne Sausage. Other famous dishes are Christmas Pudding and Black Bun and the other rich fruit treat of Clootie Dumpling which are often served at Hogmanay and New Year. Have a look at some of the Authentic Scottish Food Recipes

Of course, other Scottish customs and traditions stem from our world-famous whisky, (or 'whiskey'). Of course, reams has been written on this subject and experts will give you unlimited advice on every aspect of enjoying this National Drink, from the type of glass to use, to the aroma and the very 'sipping' of this golden nectar.

Our Dress and Highland Games

The sight of a Scotsman in full Highland Dress is indeed a site to behold. Perhaps you are not sure of the difference between Plaid and Tartan, or are confused about the other things such as 'flashes' that are worn with the kilt, or indeed you might be asking yourself the age-old question of what do Scotsmen wear under their kilts. Part of culture is also the famous Highland Games which are held throughout the country during the summer months. Here, you will see people dressed the national costume and you can observe all the different competitions such as the Dancing Events, or at other parts of the area the Music Competitions will be taking place and of course the Athletic Events especially the tossing the Caber are great fun to watch.

Our Language

Although Gaelic is the language that some traditionally see as Scottish, in reality few Scots speak it, although it is still used in the Islands and some parts of the Highlands, and there has been a resurgence in recent years to increase the number of Gaelic speakers that it is taught in some schools. But our own version of English is the main language used. But we have a very distinct dialect and 'own' words, which means we actually speak what I will refer to as 'Scots'. However, the old 'Scots' language of say Rabbie Burns has mellowed somewhat over the years and I think there are many Scots today especially the young folk who might have a hard time understanding some of the poetic works of Burns. Yet there are still many words which are uniquely Scottish, so much so that Dictionaries have been written to help people understand the language.

Of course, as in all parts of UK, each area has its own distinct accent. The people from Glasgow speak with quite a different accent to those from Edinburgh or Aberdeen, and some accents are very 'strong' that even fellow Scots can have difficulty understanding. So, if you're planning to visit, learn some of the vocabulary, and tune your ears to learn new words and phrases.

Our Flags and Symbols

Something unique in our Scottish customs and traditions is that we have two flags. The Blue and White Cross of the St Andrews Flag (known as the Saltire) is recognised throughout the world, and it also makes up part of the Union Jack of Great Britain.

But of course, in Scotland we also have the Lion Rampart Flag. Other symbols recognised as uniquely Scottish are the Celtic Cross (often made into beautiful jewellery today) and of course our famous flowers of heather and the bluebell.

Our Folklore, Myths and Legends

From sightings of the Loch Ness Monster, or our famous Haggis, tales of ghosts and other bizarre stories, Scotland is full of folklore, myths and legends.

Our Religion

Much of the Scottish customs and traditions come from Scotland's pictish past and early Christianity changed completely during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th Century. Book after book has been written about our religious history, but I just want to briefly touch here on the modern face of religion in Scotland. The Protestant "Kirk" or "Church of Scotland" is recognised as the National Church. It is believed that around 20% of people are Roman Catholics. The Reformation left Protestants and Catholics in conflict with each other and even though that conflict has lessened over the years it's still left its mark. There are still separate schools for Catholic and Protestant children, and it even spilled over to our two famous and opposing Glasgow Football Teams ie Protestants support Rangers and Catholics support Celtic.

However, like most places in the UK, you will find a variety of other Churches such as Baptists, Episcopalians, Brethren Assemblies, Quakers, Methodists, Church of Nazarene, Pentecostal, Charismatic and a variety of other Independent non-conformist Churches.

There has also been a strong Jewish community for a very long time and in recent years with so many immigrants entering Scotland we have seen many other religions emerge such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism to name but a few.

There are also many people who have no beliefs at all, while some claim to be 'Christian' in order to have their children baptised, get married and/or buried in Church, but in reality give little or no thought to any real beliefs in God.

Symbols.

The National symbols of Scotland include a diversity of official and unofficial images and other symbols.

The distinctive Royal Stewart Tartan is the personal tartan of Queen Elizabeth II.

The Flag of Scotland, the Saltire or St. Andrew's Cross, dates (at least in legend) from the 9th century, and is thus the oldest national flag still in use. The Saltire now also forms part of the design of the Union Flag.

Declaration of Arbroath (1320) Scotland Declaration of Independence.

The Royal Standard of Scotland, a banner showing the Royal Arms of Scotland, is also frequently to be seen, particularly at sporting events involving a Scottish team. Often called the Lion Rampant (after its chief heraldic device), it is technically the property of the monarch and its use by anybody else is illegal, although this is almost universally ignored, and never enforced.

The unicorn is also used as a heraldic symbol of Scotland. The Royal Coat of Arms of Scotland, used prior to 1603 by the Kings of Scotland, incorporated a lion rampant shield supported by two unicorns. On the Union of the Crowns, the Arms were quartered with those of England and Ireland, and one unicorn was replaced by a lion (the supporters of England).

The Honours of Scotland, the Scottish Crown Jewels, are displayed in the Crown Room of Edinburgh Castle, from where they are removed only for State Occasions. Stylised versions of the Crown of Scotland appear upon the badges of the Royal Regiment of Scotland, those of the Scottish Police Forces, the Scottish Ambulance Service and upon Royal Mail premises, vehicles and pillar/wall boxes in Scotland.

William Wallace, a national hero and a leader in the Scottish Wars of Independence.

The thistle, the floral emblem of Scotland, features in many Scottish symbols and logos, and on UK currency. Heather is also considered to be a symbol of Scotland.

The national anthem of the United Kingdom is God Save the Queen and, as for the other constituent countries of the UK, Scotland has no distinct official national anthem of its own. There are several candidates, however: Flower of Scotland is popularly held to be the National Anthem of Scotland, and is played at events such as football or rugby matches involving the Scotland national team. Scotland the Brave is used for the Scottish team at the Commonwealth Games. However, since devolution, more serious discussion of the issue has led to the use of Flower of Scotland being disputed. Other candidates include Highland Cathedral, Scots Wha Hae and A Man's A Man for A' That.

Tartan is a specific woven textile pattern that often signifies a particular Scottish clan, as featured in a kilt.

St Andrew's Day, the 30 November, is the national day, although Burns' Night tends to be more widely observed. Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007, designating the day to be an official bank holiday.

The Flag of Scotland, (Scottish Gaelic: Bratach nàiseanta na h-Alba,[3] Scots: Banner o Scotland), also known as Saint Andrew's Cross or The Saltire, is the national flag of Scotland. As the national flag, the Saltire (rather than the Royal Standard of Scotland) is the correct flag for all individuals and corporate bodies to fly in order to demonstrate both their loyalty and Scottish nationality. It is also, where possible, flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset, with certain exceptions.

According to legend, the Christian apostle and martyr Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, was crucified on an X-shaped cross at Patras, (Patrae), in Achaea. Use of the familiar iconography of his martyrdom, showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, first appears in the Kingdom of Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William I. This image was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th century; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland, dated 1286.

Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew which does not depict his image, namely the saltire, or crux decussata, (from the Latin crux, 'cross', and decussis, 'having the shape of the Roman numeral X'), has its origins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on their person, both in front and behind, for the purpose of identification.

The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew's Cross as a flag is to be found in the Vienna Book of Hours, circa 1503, where a white saltire is depicted with a red background. In the case of Scotland, use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century, with the first certain illustration of a flag depicting such appearing in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount's Register of Scottish Arms, circa 1542.

The legend surrounding Scotland's association with the Saint Andrew's Cross dates from a 9th century battle, where Óengus II led a combined force of Picts and Scots to victory over the Angles, led by Æthelstan. Consisting of a blue background over which is placed a white representation of an X-shaped cross, the Saltire is one of Scotland's most recognisable symbols.

Design

Saltire with sky blue field.

The Scottish heraldic term for an X-shaped cross is a 'saltire', from the old French word saultoir; meaning a type of stirrup. In heraldic language, it may be blazoned azure, a saltire argent. The tincture of the Saltire can appear as either silver (argent) or white, however the term azure does not refer to a particular shade of blue.

Throughout the history of fabric production natural dyes have been used to apply a form of colour, with natural dyes from plants, including the indigo dye from Woad, also having dozens of compounds whose proportions may vary according to soil type and climate; giving rise to variations in shade. In the case of the Saltire, variations in shades of blue have resulted in the background of the flag ranging from sky blue to navy blue. When incorporated as part of the Union Flag during the 17th century, the dark blue applied to Union Flags destined for maritime use was possibly selected on the basis of the durability of darker dyes, with this dark blue shade eventually becoming standard on Union Flags both at sea and on land. Some flag manufacturers selected the same navy blue colour trend of the Union Flag for the Saltire itself, leading to a variety of shades of blue being depicted on the flag of Scotland.

These variations in shade eventually led to calls to standardise the colour of Scotland's national flag, and in 2003 a committee of the Scottish Parliament met to examine a petition that the Scottish Government adopt the Pantone 300 colour as a standard. (Note that this blue is of a lighter shade than the Pantone 280 of the Union Flag). Having taken advice from a number of sources, including the office of the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the committee recommended that the optimum shade of blue for the Saltire be Pantone 300. Recent versions of the Saltire have therefore largely converged on this official recommendation

The flag proportions are not fixed, however the Lord Lyon King of Arms states that 5:4 is suitable. The ratio of the width of the bars of the saltire in relation to the width of the field is specified in heraldry in relation to shield width rather than flag width. However, this ratio, though not rigid, is specified as one-third to one-fifth of the width of the field.

History

Saint Andrew

According to legend, in 832 A.D. Óengus II led an army of Picts and Scots into battle against the Angles, led by Æthelstan, near modern-day Athelstaneford, East Lothian. The legend states that whilst engaged in prayer on the eve of battle, Óengus vowed that if granted victory he would appoint Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland. On the morning of battle white clouds forming an X shape in the sky were said to have appeared. Óengus and his combined force, emboldened by this apparent divine intervention, took to the field and despite being inferior in terms of numbers were victorious. Having interpreted the cloud phenomenon as representing the crux decussata upon which Saint Andrew was crucified, Óengus honoured his pre-battle pledge and duly appointed Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland. The white saltire set against a celestial blue background is said to have been adopted as the design of the flag of Scotland on the basis of this legend.

Although the earliest use as a national symbol can be traced to the seal of the Guardians of Scotland in 1286, material evidence for the Saltire being used as a flag, as opposed to appearing on another object such as a seal, brooch or surcoat, dates from somewhat later. Certainly by 1542, a white saltire set against a blue background was depicted as being the flag of Scotland, lthough an even earlier example known as the "Blue Blanket of the Trades of Edinburgh", reputedly made by Queen Margaret, wife of James III (1451–1488), also shows a white saltire on a blue field. However, in the case of the Blue Blanket, the Saltire is not the only emblem to be portrayed.

Protocol

Scottish Government logo

The Scottish Government has ruled that the Saltire should, where possible, fly on all its buildings every day from 8am until sunset. An exception is made for United Kingdom "national days", when on buildings where only one flagpole is present the Saltire shall be lowered and replaced with the Union Flag. Such flag days are standard throughout the United Kingdom, with the exception of Merchant Navy Day, (3 September), which is a specific flag day in Scotland during which the Red Ensign of the Merchant Navy may be flown on land in place of either the Saltire or Union Flag.

A further Scottish distinction from the UK flag days is that on Saint Andrew's Day, (30 November), the Union Flag will only be flown where a building has more than one flagpole - the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag where a single flagpole is present. If there are two or more flagpoles present, the Saltire may be flown in addition to the Union Flag but not in a superior position. This distinction arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world where the potential existed for the citizens of a country to be unable to fly their national flag on their country's national day.[23] (In recent years, embassies of the United Kingdom have also flown the Saltire to mark St Andrew's Day).

Use by military institutions on land

Challenger 1 tank of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards flying a Saltire from the whip antenna.

Royal Navy Sea King Mk5 of HMS Gannet.

The seven British Army Infantry battalions of the Scottish Division, plus the Scots Guards and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards regiments, use the Saltire in a variety of forms. Combat and transport vehicles of these Army units are frequently adorned with a small, (130x80mm approx.), representation of the Saltire; such decals being displayed on the front and/or rear of the vehicle. (On tanks these can be also be displayed on the vehicle turret). In Iraq, during both Operation Granby and the subsequent Operation Telic, the Saltire was often flown from the communications whip antenna of vehicles belonging to these units. Funerals, conducted with full military honours, of casualties of these operations in Iraq have also included the Saltire; the flag being draped over the coffin of the deceased on such occasions.

In the battle for "hearts and minds" in Iraq, the Saltire was again used by the British Army as a means of distinguishing troops belonging to Scottish regiments from other coalition forces, in the hope of fostering better relations with the civilian population in the area south west of Baghdad. Leaflets were distributed to Iraqi civilians, by members of the Black Watch, depicting troops and vehicles set against a backdrop of the Saltire.

Immediately prior to, and following, the merger in March 2006 of Scotland's historic infantry regiments to form a single Royal Regiment of Scotland, a multi-million-pound advertising campaign was launched in Scotland in an attempt to attract recruits to join the reorganised and simultaneously rebranded "Scottish Infantry". The recruitment campaign employed the Saltire in the form of a logo; the words "Scottish Infantry. Forward As One." being placed next to a stylised image of the Saltire. For the duration of the campaign, this logo was used in conjunction with the traditional Army recruiting logo; the words "Army. Be The Best." being placed beneath a stylised representation of the Union Flag. Despite this multi-media campaign having had mixed results in terms of overall success, the Saltire continues to appear on a variety of Army recruiting media used in Scotland.

Other uses of the Saltire by the Army include the cap badge design of the Royal Regiment of Scotland, which consists of a (silver) Saltire, surmounted by a (gilt) lion rampant and ensigned with a representation of the Crown of Scotland. (This same design, save for the Crown, is used on both the Regimental flag and tactical recognition flash of the Royal Regiment of Scotland).

The Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy adorn three of their aircraft with the Saltire. Specifically, the Westland Sea King Mk5 aircraft of HMS Gannet, operating in the Search and Rescue role from Royal Naval Air Station Prestwick, Ayrshire, display a Saltire decal on the nose of each aircraft.

Although not represented in the form of a flag, the No. 602 (City of Glasgow) Squadron of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force uses the Saltire surmounted by a lion rampant as the device shown on the squadron crest. The station crest of RAF Leuchars, Fife, also shows the Saltire, in this case surmounted by a sword. The crest of the former RAF East Fortune, East Lothian, also showed a sword surmounting the Saltire, however unlike Leuchars this sword was shown invereted, and the station crest of the former RAF Turnhouse, Edinburgh, showed a Saltire surmounted by an eagle's head.

General use

Planning permission to fly the Saltire from a flagpole is not required, therefore it can be flown at any time by any individual, company, local authority, hospital or school.[1][6] Many local authorities in Scotland fly the Saltire from Council Buildings, however in 2007 Angus Council approved a proposal to replace the Saltire on Council Buildings with a new Angus flag, based on the council's coat of arms. This move led to public outcry across Scotland with more than 7,000 people signing a petition opposing the council's move, leading to a compromise whereby the Angus flag would not replace but be flown alongside the Saltire on Council Buildings.[38]

Many bodies of the Scottish Government use the flag as a design basis for their logo; for example, Safer Scotland's emblem depicts a lighthouse shining beams in a saltire shape onto a blue sky. Other Scottish bodies, both private and public, have also used the saltire in similar ways. In the United Kingdom, owners of vehicles registered in Great Britain have the option of displaying the Saltire on the vehicle registration plate, in conjunction with the letters "SCO" or alternatively the word "Scotland".

Similar flags used outside Scotland

Provincial Flag of Nova Scotia.

Inverse representations, (blue saltire on a white field), of the Scottish Saltire are also used outside Scotland. In Canada, an inverse representation of the Saltire, combined with the shield from the Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, forms the modern flag of the Canadian Province of Nova Scotia (New Scotland), the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland into the Americas. The flag and arms of the Nova Scotian county of Annapolis comprise inverse represenations of the flag of Scotland.

In Russia, during the period before and after the Soviet Union, the naval ensign of the Russian Navy has been an inverse representation of the Cross of Saint Andrew. The flag, known in Russian as the Andreyevsky flag, also forms the basis of the naval jack and several rank flags of the Russian Navy. (Saint Andrew is also a patron saint of Russia).

The U.S. state of Alabama's flag is officially "a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white", however the reference is used only to describe the shape without using the vexillological term saltire. Similarly, the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia lso use the saltire on their flags. In Poland, the official banner of the city of Kraków, (twinned with Edinburgh), feature the coat of arms of Kraków overlying a white saltire on a blue field. Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode, named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda, also uses the Saltire as the basis of its flag, although in this case the Saltire is defaced with a gold castle, having on both sides a battlement.

The Saltire is also the flag for St. Andrew's Scots School in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and its "spinoff" university Universidad de San Andrés. In Northern Ireland, sections of the Protestant community routinely employ the Saltire as a means of demonstrating and celebrating their Ulster-Scots heritage

Incorporation into the Union Flag

Scottish Union Flag depicted in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe.

The Saltire is one of the key components of the Union Flag hich, since its creation in 1606, has appeared in various forms following the Flag of Scotland and Flag of England first being merged to mark the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred three years earlier, in 1603, when James VI, King of Scots, acceded to the thrones of both England and Ireland upon the death of Elizabeth I of England). The proclamation by King James, made on the 12 April 1606, which led to the creation of the Union Flag states:“ By the King: Whereas, some differences hath arisen between Our subjects of South and North Britaine travelling by Seas, about the bearing of their Flagges: For the avoiding of all contentions hereafter. We have, with the advice of our Council, ordered: That from henceforth all our Subjects of this Isle and Kingdome of Great Britaine, and all our members thereof, shall beare in their main-toppe the Red Crosse, commonly called St. George’s Crosse, and the White Crosse, commonly called St. Andrew’s Crosse, joyned together according to the forme made by our heralds, and sent by Us to our Admerall to be published to our Subjects: and in their fore-toppe our Subjects of South Britaine shall weare the Red Crosse onely as they were wont, and our Subjects of North Britaine in their fore-toppe the White Crosse onely as they were accustomed. – 1606. ”

—Proclamation of James VI, King of Scots: Orders in Council – 12 April, 1606.

In objecting strongly to the form and pattern of Union Flag adopted by James' heralds whereby the cross of Saint George surmounted that of Saint Andrew, (regarded in Scotland as a slight upon the Scottish nation), a great number of shipmasters and ship-owners in Scotland took up the matter with John Erskine, 18th Earl of Mar, and encouraged him to send a letter of complaint, dated 7 August 1606, to James VI, via the Privy Council of Scotland, stating:“ Most sacred Soverayne. A greate nomber of the maisteris and awnaris of the schippis of this your Majesteis kingdome hes verie havelie compleint to your Majesteis Counsell that the form and patrone of the flaggis of schippis, send doun heir and commandit to be ressavit and used be the subjectis of boith kingdomes, is very prejudiciall to the fredome and dignitie of this Estate and will gif occasioun of reprotche to this natioun quhairevir the said flage sal happin to be worne beyond sea becaus, as your sacred majestie may persave, the Scottis Croce, callit Sanctandrois Croce is twyse divydit, and the Inglishe Croce, callit Sanct George, haldin haill and drawne through the Scottis Croce, whiche is thairby obscurit and no takin nor merk to be seen of the Scottis Armes. This will breid some heit and miscontentment betwix your Majesteis subjectis, and it is to be ferit that soem inconvenientis sall fall out betwix thame, for oure seyfairing men cannot be inducit to ressave that flag as it is set doun. They haif drawne two new drauchtis and patronis as most indifferent for boith kingdomes which they present to the Counsell, and craved our approbatioun of the same; bot we haif reserved that to you Majesteis princelie determination, ”

—Letter from the Privy Council of Scotland to James VI, King of Scots – 7 August, 1606.

Slezer's Edinburgh Castle c.1693 depicting the Scottish Union Flag.

Although the drawings which accompanied this complaint showing drafts of the two new patterns have been lost, evidence exists, at least on paper, of a Scottish variant whereby the Scottish cross appears uppermost. There is reason to think that cloth flags of this unofficial design were employed during the 17th century for use on Scottish vessels at sea. This flag's design is also described in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe by John Beaumont, Junior, which contains as an appendix The Ensigns, Colours or Flags of the Ships at Sea: Belonging to The several Princes and States in the World.

On land, evidence suggesting use of this flag appears in the depiction of Edinburgh Castle by John Slezer, in his series of engravings entitled Theatrum Scotiae, c. 1693. Appearing in later editions of Theatrum Scotiae, the North East View of Edinburgh Castle engraving depicts the Scotch (to use the appropriate adjective of that period) version of the Union Flag flying from the Castle Clock Tower.(A reduced view of this engraving also appears on the Plan of Edenburgh, Exactly Done). However, it does not appear on the engraving entitled North Prospect of the City of Edenburgh.

On 17 April 1707, just two weeks prior to the Acts of Union coming into effect, and with Sir Henry St George, Garter King of Arms, having presented several designs of flag to Queen Anne and her Privy Council for consideration, the flag for the soon to be unified Kingdom of Great Britain was chosen. At the suggestion of the Scots representatives, the designs for consideration included that version of Union Flag showing the Cross of Saint Andrew uppermost; identified as being the "Scotts union flagg as said to be used by the Scotts". However, Queen Anne and her Privy Council approved Sir Henry's original effort showing the Cross of Saint George uppermost; numbered "one".

From 1801, in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland a new design, which included the St Patrick's Cross, was adopted for the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Union Flag, having remained unaltered following the partition of Ireland in 1921 and the creation of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland, continues to be used as the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Royal Standard of Scotland

The Royal Standard of Scotland, also known as the Banner of the King of Scots or more commonly the Lion Rampant of Scotland, is the Scottish Royal Banner of Arms. Used historically by the King of Scots, the Royal Standard of Scotland differs from Scotland's national flag, The Saltire, in that its correct use is restricted by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland to only a few Great Officers of State who officially represent The Sovereign in Scotland. It is also used in an official capacity at Royal residences in Scotland when The Sovereign is not present.

Flower of Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Flùr na h-Alba, Scots: Flouer o Scotland) is a Scottish song, used frequently at special occasions and sporting events. Although Scotland has no official national anthem, Flower of Scotland is one of a number of songs which unofficially fulfil this role, along with the older Scots Wha Hae, Scotland the Brave and Highland Cathedral. It was written by Roy Williamson of the folk group The Corries, and presented in 1967,[1] and refers to the victory of the Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, over England's Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.

Heraldry

Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare)

In the language of flowers, the thistle (like the burr) is an ancient Celtic symbol of nobility of character as well as of birth, for the wounding or provocation of a thistle yields punishment. For this reason the thistle is the symbol of the Order of the Thistle, a high chivalric order of Scotland.

Another story is that a bare foot Viking attacker stepped on one at night and cried out, so alerting the defenders of a Scottish castle. Whatever the justification, the national flower of Scotland is the thistle. It is found in many Scottish symbols and as the name of several Scottish football clubs. Carnegie Mellon University features the thistle in its crest.

The Royal Coat of Arms of Scotland (commonly referred to as the Royal Arms of Scotland) was the official coat of arms of the monarchs of Scotland, and was used as the official coat of arms of the Kingdom of Scotland until the Acts of Union of 1707. The blazon of the arms of the Kingdom of Scotland changed markedly following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, and ultimately went on to become the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom as used in Scotland.

Kingdom of Scotland

Reverse of Alexander II's Great Seal, displaying the Lion rampant on saddle and shield. form of these arms was first used by King William I in the 12th century. A register in the College of Arms in London describes the arms of the Kyng of Scottz as being Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory counter-flory Gules.

Throughout the ages the arms passed from monarch to succeeding monarch with only slight variations in detail. In some early examples the crest depicts the lion without a sceptre and holding the sword at an angle in the dexter paw, the sword blade passing behind the crowned head of the lion. Other versions show the unicorn supporters without their crowns, although being considered dangerous beasts they are always chained.

The motto In My Defens God Me Defend also appears as In My Defens or simply In Defens, whilst always appearing above the crest in keeping with the conventions of Scots heraldry. The lions, both rampant and sejant affronte, are usually depicted with blue tongue and claws, in heraldic terms armed and langued azure, but this has not always been the case. The tail of the lion rampant often ends by falling away from the back of the animal but at times is depicted turning inwards towards the head. The lion rampant has even been depicted on a banner wearing a crown in the style of the Norwegian coat of Arms.

Many of these relatively minor variations will have resulted from the individual efforts of stone masons, weavers, artists and sculptors throughout the ages in their attempts to create a facsimile of the arms of the period.