12. The Ascending Stepping Head. The Low Level Head.

Each of the stressed syllables of the Ascending Head takes a static tone pitched higher than the preceding one, so that the onset syllable occupies the lowest pitch in the head. Intervening unstressed syllables are said on the same pitch as the stressed syllable to which they are attached (usually the preceding one). Since all the stressed syllables are contrasted to one another in pitch they are all regarded as full stresses, and the words carrying them as more or less equally important.

The Ascending Head is typically combined with the nuclear high falling and high rising tones. The last syllable of the head doesn't, as a rule, reach the high pitch zone, where the nuclear tone starts from. The degree of prominence of the nucleus seems to be greater than in the Stepping Descending or, especially, High Level Heads. Such an effect is produced by the gradual rise of the pitch throughout the head reaching its climax on the nucleus. As a result of the increased weight of the nuclear word, utterances pronounced with the Ascending Head cause the listener to anticipate the main point of information at the end. Due to these peculiarities the given prosodic pattern imparts specific modal connotations to an utterance. There is often a feeling of impatience, surprise, protest, disbelief or, vice versa, a note of enthusiastic approval and support.

In the Low Head all the syllables - stressed and unstressed - are pronounced in the low pitch zone of the speaker's voice-range. Prominence on the relevant syllables in this type of head is achieved by a greater force of articulation and longer duration. The stressed syllables are indicated with a low stress-mark.

The Low Head is used in combination with low nuclear tones which are often of a narrow variety. The most frequent nuclear tones after the Low Head are the Low Narrow Fall and the Low Narrow Rise. Since the whole utterance with the Low Head is pronounced within a narrow voice-range there is an impression of smaller overall prominence. Such utterances often convey a cool, detached, phlegmatic, disinterested or disapproving attitude.

13. The Sliding Head. The Scandent Head.

The Sliding Head is formed by a sequence of slides, i.e. downward pitch movements, associated with each fully stressed syllable of the head. To symbolize the Sliding Head the mark ^N is placed above each stressed syllable.

The stressed syllables in the Sliding Head may start on the same pitch or form a gradual ascent or descent. The last type seems to be the most frequent.

In the Descending Sliding Head each preceding stressed syllable starts on a higher pitch than the following one, the first full stress beginning on the highest pitch. However, the descent in pitch is not step-like as in the Stepping Head; it has a jumpy, or wave-like, character. Such an effect is due to the pitch contrast between the end of the preceding stress-group and the beginning of the following: the latter is higher in pitch as a result of a downward pitch movement inside the preceding stress-group, realized either as a glide on the stressed syllable (when there aren't any unstressed syllables following) or as a jump in pitch between the stressed syllable and the following unstressed ones.

Partially stressed syllables in the given type of head behave in the same way as the unstressed ones: they gradually carry the pitch down, so that when a full stress is given only to the first notional word and the other prenuclear notional words are given partial stresses {one-peak head), the pitch pattern of the head is falling rather than sliding.

The degree of prominence achieved is at the same time greater in the Sliding and Falling Heads as compare with the Stepping and the High Heads, respectively. This accounts for their wide us in lively, expressive conversation and in reading emotionally colored texts.

The Sliding Head and its variant, the Falling Head, are most frequently combine with the Falling-Rising Tone, although they may occur with any of the other nuclei tones as well.

The Scandent Head

The head of an utterance is sometimes formed by a sequence of 'climbs', i.e. upward pitch-changes associated with each of the stressed syllables which are indicated with an upward arrow (^/m). These upward pitch movements are realized either inside the stressed syllable (when no unstressed syllables follow) or on the unistressed syllable which are then pronounced on a higher pitch than the preceding stressed syllable. Partial stresses in the given type of head behave in the same way as the unstresse syllables: they continue the rise of the voice initiated on the preceding stressed syllable.

Utterances pronounced with the Scandent Head sound lively and expressive. The exact modal connotation depends on the nuclear tone and the communicative type of an utterance. Combined with the High Rise in general questions the Scandent Head often expresses surprise and incredulity.

Combined with the Low Rise in imperative utterances this head has a reassuring, encouraging meaning and is often used in speaking to childreny.

The Scandent Head before a falling nuclear tone may express the speaker's irritation or, vice versa, cheerfulness and interest (the exact meaning is always clear from the context).

1. The English sound system. Principles of classification of vowels. Phonetics is a discipline of linguistics that focuses on the study of the sounds used in speech.Vowel is a sound when the air stream has no obstruction on its during of articulation.Vowels are classified according to tongue position(horizontal(fully front v-s[e,i:],front retreated v-s[i],mixed v-s[ə],back advanced v-s[u:],back v-s) & vertical(close[u:][i:][i][u],mid-open[e],open[a:][ æ])),lip position(labialized[u:][ ɔ:],non-labialized[ɜ͟:]), length(short & long), the degree of tenseness, the stability of articulation(monophtong[u],diphthong[au],diphtongoid[i:][u:]).	2. The English sound system Principles of classification of consonants Phonetics is a discipline of linguistics that focuses on the study of the sounds used in speech.Consonant is a sound when the air stream has obstruction on its during of articulation.Consonants are classified according to: 1.type of obstruction & kind of noise:occlusive(plosive[p][b] & nasal[m][n][l]), constrictive(fricative[f][v] & sonant[j][w]), affricates[tS][dз] 2.the work of active organ of speech & place of obstruction: fore lingual(apical-alveolar[t][d], apical-dental[Ө],curcuminal[r]),medio lingual(palatal), back lingual(velar[ŋ], glottal[h]) 3.labio-dental[t][v] & bilabial[b][p] 4.the work of vocal cords & the force of articulation(lenis[b][d] & fortis [p][f])
14. Classification of Basic Intonation Patterns. All the basic intonation patterns can be contrasted to one another both inform and meaning. The basic intonation patterns are associated with a complete communicative unit. The notion of a basic pattern refers to a simple tune functioning within an independent utterance.In the description of the English intonation system intonation patterns are traditionally presented as pitch-patterns, or contours. Pitch features are inseparable from stress and from rhythm. Stress influences the speed of utterance and is itself influenced by the tempo of speech. The Basic int.patterns are divided into: the rising tone-pattern, the falling tone-pattern, the falling-rising tone-pattern and the rising-falling to ne-pattern.Within each of the four tone patterns there is a further division in accordance with the accepted functional variation of the nuclear tones.Each tone pattern is realized in a number of tunes. The most important subdivision is into tunes having a head and those without a head.	15. The principles of dividing utterances into intonation groups Analysis of English utterances into intonation-groups shows that they are co-extensive with a stretch of speech of various grammatical nature: an independent sentence, a principal or a subordinate clause, two or even more clauses, a group of words or even one word. An intonation-group corresponding to a grammatical sentence is marked by specific characteristics of tone, stress and duration, serving to express semantic completeness and independence -the relevant features of an utterance. An intonation-group of this kind is defined as a simple tune. Utterances which are composed of more than one intonation-croup form a combined tune. Their division is based both on physiological convenience on the complexity of information. Prosodic division is typically optional in expanded simple sentences with adverbial modifiers of different kinds, complex sentences with object, relative or attributive clauses and some others. An intonation boundary is obligatory highly probable in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of condition, cause, time concession, result, comparison and some others. The choice of a number of intonation-groups in an utterance also depends on the type and form of speech.
16. The notion of a supraphrasal unity its prosodic features The unit coming next to an utterance in the above-mentioned hierarchy is a supraphrasal unity (SPU). There arc constant prosodic markers distinguishing initial, median and final phrases in the unity. These are the features of pitch , loudness and tempo An important feature marking the boundary of a supraphrasal unity is a pause which is considerably longer than any of the pauses separating the phrases within the unity. It is the so-called three-unit pause.The degree of semantic completeness of the utterances within a supraphrasal unity is reflected in the degree of finality of its nuclear tone. The last utterance in a unity normally has a falling nuclear tone with the lowest ending point while the fall in the non-final phrases doesn't doesn't generally reach the bottom of the voice-range.	17. The system & sphere of usage of emphatic static & kinetic tones Emphatic tones are used in speech for two main purposes: 1) to increase the semantic prominence of separate words in an utterance or that of an entire utterance; 2) to attach an emotional colouring to an utterance. Emphatic tones are modifications, or variants, of basic kinetic and static tones. Emphasis applied to a tone increases the force of articulation on the syllable carrying the tone and the effect of loudness. It also changes the pitch characteristics, moving the upper point of a kinetic tone upward and the lower point of it downward, thus widening the interval of the pitch-change. In the case of a static tone emphasis displaces the 'normal' pitch-height of the tone upwards or downwards. A. The Use of Emphatic Static Tones Emphasis on t h e onset of a high rising tune makes the question sound rhetorical. Emphasis on the onset syllable of a falling tune enhances the energetic character of a statement, command or exclamation. When the onset syllable of a low rising tune is made emphatic a note of impatience is suggested to an utterance. B. Emphasis on Kinetic Nuclear Tones The Emphatic High Rise is most commonly used in General questions to express extreme surprise or a shocked reaction. The Emphatic Low Rise is used in various types of utterances. In Statements and Imperatives this tone is often preceded by a low-pitched head and expresses a feeling of irritation, dissatisfaction. General and Special questions with an Emphatic Low Rise, preceded by a high-pitched lead convey a meaning of extreme surprise and incredulity. When a low-pitched head is pronounced before an Emphatic Low Rise the question acquires a note of antagonism and impatience.The Emphatic Fall gives an utterance an energetic note and imparts additional modal connotations, which depend on the communicative type of the utterance. Thus, Statements pronounced with an Emphatic Fall sound very categoric and decisive.Special questions with an Emphatic Fall sound insistent or contrastive.Imperatives and exclamations with an Emphatic Fall sound strong and enthusiastic.
18. Irregular preheads. Stress reduction. Nuclear tone-shift. Irregular Prehead is a displacement in pitch from the normal position in the lower half or near the middle of the voice-range. The displacement can be made both upward and downward - High Irregular and Low Irregular Preheads. In the High Irregular Prehead all the syllables are said on a very high pitch. In the Low Irregular Prehead all the syllables are said on a very low pitch. The exact modal-emotional meaning of an utterance with the High Irregular Prehea. depends on the nuclear tone. In tunes with the nuclear Emphatic Mid/Low Fall the High Irregular Prehead is used to express disapproval, indignation or insistence.In tunes with the emphatic Low Rise nuclear tone the High Irregular Prehead after. adds a feeling of disagreement and impatience.When followed by the emphatic High Rise the High Irregular Prehead gives a feeling of extreme surprise. When you desire to reinforce the semantic weight of the nuclear word it can be done a) by reducing or eliminating the prenuclear stresses, thus giving the nucleus greater relative b) by using the so-called nuclear tone-shift, which means displacing the nuclear tone from its normal position - on the last notional word in an utterance - to a word at the beginning or in the middle of it. The effect of a departure from final position is that of special semantic prominence or contrast.The effect of a contrastive tone-shift is always greater when the nuclear stress is given to a function word or a pronoun.Nuclear shifts are often combined with emphasis witch increases the prominence of the word.	19. The expressive potential of compound tunes Intonation-groups having more than one kinetic tone are called compound tunes. The intonation-groups are not split into as many smaller groups as there are prenuclear kinetic tones in them. This can be explained by the absence of a pause after the prenuclear kinetic tones. There are some peculiarities in the pitch and duration features of these tones which mark them as non-final accents closely linked within one unit - an intonation-group. the Ascending Head=the Low Rise + High Fall compound tune, the Sliding Head=the Fall + Fall compound tune, the Scandent Head=the Rise + Rise compound tunes. The most common types of compound tunes are: High Rise + High Rise(This compound tune typically occurs in general questions. It gives them a feeling of surprise or incredulity), Low Rise + Fall(It usually gives a feeling of: a) mystification and puzzlement to questions; b) persuasiveness and expostulation to statements and imperatives; c) wonderment to exclamations.), Fall + Fall-Rise(It usually serves to give special emphasis to some word; a more apologetic note in statements), Fall-Rise + Fall(It serves to emphasize and often to give a sense of contrast to some word (words) coming earlier than the nucleus.), Fall + Fall(gives emphasis to or expresses a contrast; a) insistence to special and general questions; b) dogmatism to statements; c) energy to imperatives; d) extra emphasis to exclamations).
20. Prosodic peculiarities of formal and informal speech. Prosodic characteristics regard the basic intonation contours as such as a norm. The peculiarity of each of the styles might then be seen in two ways: 1) as statistical preference of some of the pattern in comparison with the others; 2) as modifications, or deviations, from the 'normal' characteristics of the basic patterns. O f f i с i a l, and public speaking will obviously be louder and slower, more careful, distinct and tense in articulation than informal familiar speech. This seems to be a universal phonetic characteristic of the given stylistic varieties. Informal speech reveals an opposite tendency: to make frequent use of only a small number of basic prosodic configurations. In other words, within any given stretch of utterance very little actually occurs.