25) Homymy and its sources. Classifications of homonyms.

Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.Sources: 1) phonetic changes - words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result - two or more words, formerly pronounced differently may develop identical sound forms and thus be-come homonyms (knight-night)2) Borrowing. A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaptation, duplicate in form either a native word or an-other borrowing. So, in the group of homonyms rite, n. — to write, v. — right, adj. the second and third words are of native origin whereas rite is a Latin borrowing (< Lat. ritus).3) Word-building also contributes significantly to the growth of homonymy, and the most important type in this respect is undoubtedly conversion. Such pairs of words as comb, n. — to comb, v., pale, adj. — to pale, v., to make, v. — make, n. are numerous in the vocabulary. 4) Shortening is a further type of word-building which in-creases the number of homonyms. E.g. fan, n. in the sense of "an enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor, singer, etc." is a shortening produced from fanatic.5) Words made by sound-imitation can also form pairs of homonyms with other words: e. g. bang, n. ("a loud, sudden, explosive noise") — bang, n. ("a fringe of hair combed over the forehead”)Classification of Homonyms

The subdivision of homonyms into homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is certainly not precise enough and does not reflect certain important features of these words, and, most important of all, their status as parts of speech. Accordingly, Professor A. I. Smirnitsky classified homonyms into two large classes:

I. full homonyms, II. partial homonyms.

Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same para-digm.

E. g. / wren, n. — a member of the Women's Royal Naval Service wren, n. — a bird

II Partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups:

A. Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have one identical form, but it is never the same form, as will be seen from the examples.E. g. / to bound, v. - I bound, v. (Past Indef., Past Part, of (to bind)B. Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form in their paradigms.E. g. f rose, n. - rose, v. (Past Indef. of to rise)C. Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms.to hang (hung, hung), v. - to hang (hanged, hanged), v.

26) Thematic and ideographic groups

Them.group –subsyst. of the voc-ry for which the basis of grouping isn’t only ling-ic, but also eaxtraling-c : the words are associated, because the things they name occur together and are closely connected in reality. Examples of such groups: terms of kinship (father, cousin, uncle, stepmother).

Ideographic groups – gr-s uniting words of dif.parts of. Speech but thematically related. Words and expressions are here classed not according to their lexico-grammatical meaning but strictly according to their signification, i.e. to the system of logical notions. E.g. light n, bright a, shine v and other words connected with the notion of light as something permitting living beings to see the surrounding objects.Semantic fields - linguistic realities existing between single words and the total vocabulary; they are parts of a whole and resemble words in that they combine into some higher unit, and the vocabulary in that they resolve themselves into smaller units. E.g. “Human mind” has fol-ing gr-s (reason, n; idea, n; think, v; mediate, v; wise, adj; smart, v) – all the words are of dif. Parts of speech.LEXICO-SEMANTIC GROUPING – is singled out on purely ling. principles: words are united if they have one or more semant. Components in common bu differ in some other semant. struc-s This type of grouping is mostly applied to verbs (of sense perception, motion, speech acts)Hyponymy (inclusion) – rel-ships btw two words, in which the m-ng of one incl-s the m-ng of other.Co-hyponyms (taxonomic sisters) several specif. names of the same level in a taxonomy. Eg. “plant” – hypernym for “flower”

Lexical gap – absence of a word in a particular place in a semant. field of language.

27) Synonymy – the coincidence in the essential meanings of linguistic elements which (at the same time) usually preserve their differences in connotations and stylistic characteristics.

Synonyms – two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts.

1. Absolute syn-s Ex.: word-building – word formation 2. Ideographic syn-s. • differ in shades of meaning, i.e. between which a semantic different is statable)Ex.: to ascent – to mount – to climb 3. Dialectical syn-s ( Autumn – fall)  4. Stylistic syn-s (are distinguished stylistically, i.e. in all kinds of emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones without explicitly displaying semantic difference). Belong to different styles.

Syn.set Synonyms are usually arranged into synonymic sets with the most general term "synonymic dominant" ( the common denotational comp-nt that brings two or more words together into a synonymic group). The synonymic dom-nt is usually neutral both stylistically and emotionally. It potentially contains the characteristics rendered by all the other members of the semantically synonymous field. For example, leave, depart, quit, retire can form a synonymic group, where leave is the synonymic dom-nt, which means "go away", and this idea is contained in the other members of the synonymic set.

28) Antonymy Antonyms – are two words belonging to the same part o’speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so that their denotative m-ngs render contrary notions. e.g. poor-rich, to include-to exclude, warmly-cooly. Contrary (gradable )ant-s - are gradable and they do not deny one other. e.g good-bad, to love-to hate Contradictory (complementary) – ant-s mutually opposed, denying one another e.g. male-female, to live-to die, true-false Conversive (relational opposites) – words denoting one and the same sit-n as viewed from diff. points of view. Converseness is a mirror image relation or function, e.g. husband-wife, teacher-pupil, to buy-to sell Vectorial (directional) – ant-s are words denoting diff-ly directed actions, features. Up-down, to rise-to fall