29) Paradigmatic relations vs. Syntagmatic links.

PR – relations btw. units of the lang-e system outside the strings where they co-occur. Each linguistic unit is included in a set or series of connections called paradigms. They are based on the interdependence of words within the voc-ry (synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy) PRs are vertical.

Paradigm – set of homogenous forms opposed to each other acc. to their semantic and formal features. A paradigm at the lexical level can be illustrated by any synonymic set: WALK: stroll (walk unhurriedly), stagger (unsteadily), roam (walk without a definite aim)

SL – immediate links btw the units in a segmental sequence(string). They are horizontal since they are based on linear character of speech. e.g. issue can appear in various comb-ns. It is often linked with such adjectives as burnig, moral, political, etc or in comb-ns to raise an issue, to settle an issue, etc,

30) Semantic, proper lexical, lexico-semantic word relationships

Distribution – the range of positions in which a linguistic unit can occur.

Semantic word rel-ships –

Free word-combinations are characterized by the following features: 1) they are made up speaker; they are productive; 2) they are not equivalent to a word, i.e. each word realizes its own m-ng; 3) substitution is possible in them. Examples: a red flower, to walk in the park, very quickly.

Phraseological units possess the characteristics: 1)they can’t be freely made up in speech but they are reproduced as ready-made units; they are absolutely non-productive; 2)they are equivalent to a word i.e. the m-ng of the whole phrase can’t be deduced from the m-ngs of its components; 3)variability is impossible in them (with some exceptions) Examples: to have green fingers, as old as the hills,by hook or by crook

31. Lexicography, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is an important branch of applied linguistics.

Unilingual		Bilingual or multilingual
General	Explanatory dictionaries irrespective of their bulk	English-Russian, Russian-English, etc. and multilingual dictionaries
	Etymological, frequency, phonetical, rhyming and thesaurus type dictionaries
Special	Glossaries of scientific and other special terms; concordances^1Dictionaries of abbreviations, antonyms, borrowings, new words, proverbs, synonyms, surnames, toponyms, etc.^2	Dictionaries of scientific and other special terms^1 Dictionaries of abbreviations, phraseology, proverbs, synonyms, etc.^2
	Dictionaries of American English, dialect and slang dictionaries	Dictionaries of Old English and Middle English with explanations in Modern English

32) TYPICAL DICTIONARY STRUCTURE

When the selection of the dictionary entries, the contents and structure of the entries, their order of arrangement etc. are decided upon, the lexicographer is to settle upon this or that structure of the dictionary.

In spite of the great variety of linguistic dictionaries their composition has many features in common. Nearly all of them may be roughly divided into three unequal parts.

Apart from the dictionary proper, that make up the bulk of the wordbook, every reference book contains some separate sections which are to help the user in handling it — an Introduction and Guide to the use’ of the dictionary. This prefatory matter usually explains all the peculiarities of the word-book, it also contains a key to pronunciation, the list of abbreviations used and the like.

It is very important that the user of a dictionary should read this prefatory matter for this will enable him to know what is to be found in the word-book and what is not, will help him locate words quickly and easily, and derive the full amount of information the dictionary affords.

In translation dictionaries supplementary material is in some respects different from that in explanatory dictionaries, e.g. the Russian-English dictionary referred to above does not only include a list of geographical names, standard abbreviations pertaining to the public, political, economic and industrial life, but also contains the rules of English and Russian pronunciation as well as brief outlines of English and Russian grammar.

TYPICAL WORD ENTRY STRUCTURE

Since different types of dictionaries differ in their aim, in the information they provide, in their size, etc., they of necessity differ in the structure and content of the entry.

The most complicated type of entry is that found in explanatory dictionaries.

In explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type the entry usually presents the following data: accepted spelling and pronunciation; grammatical characteristics including the indication of the part of speech of each entry word, the transitivity and intransitivity of verbs and irregular grammatical forms; definitions of meanings; modern currency; illustrative examples; derivatives; phraseology; etymology; sometimes also synonyms and antonyms.

33) The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is an etymological diachronic dictionary. At first, the dictionary was unconnected to Oxford University but was the idea of a small group of intellectuals in London it originally was a Philological Society project conceived in London by Richard Chenevix Trench, Herbert Coleridge, and Frederick Furnivall, who were dissatisfied with the current English dictionaries. In June 1857, they formed an "Unregistered Words Committee" to search for unlisted and undefined words lacking in current dictionaries. In November, Trench's report was not a list of unregistered words;

Dictionary structure

The Oxford English Dictionary has a highly organized structure, the principal building block of which is the main entry. Most entries contain information on all of the following: spelling, pronunciation, derivation, meaning, and usage.The usage of each word, meaning, or idiom in the Dictionary is documented through comprehensive examples drawn principally from quotations taken from printed texts of the present and the past. These quotation blocks begin with the earliest recorded occurrence of a term, and follow its development up to the modern period, unless the documentary evidence shows that the term has fallen out of use along the way.Main entries give users the most comprehensive information about the most recent, or main form of a word, phrase, combination, abbreviation, letter of the alphabet, or other meaningful unit of the English language. The main entry is made up of two major sections, a generic or 'headword' section (which provides general information about the term) and other sections (including at least a 'sense' section, but also optionally a 'compounds' or 'special uses' section and a 'derivative' section).

34) Webster’s International Dictionary is an explanatory dictionary. Webster’s New International Dictionary of the English Language, 1909, is a public domain dictionary, as is also the revised 1913 edition. These dictionaries can be used to empower Wiktionary with more definitions.

Early printings of this dictionary contained the famous dord. Dord is a notable error in lexicography, an accidental creation, or ghost word, of the G. and C. Merriam Company's staff included in the second (1934) edition of its New International Dictionary, in which the term is defined as "density".

After about a decade of preparation, G. & C. Merriam issued the entirely new Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (commonly known as Webster's Third, or W3) in September 1961. It was edited by Philip Babcock Gove and a team of lexicographers who spent 757 editor-years and $3.5 million. It contained more than 450,000 entries, including over 100,000 new entries and as many new senses for entries carried over from previous editions.

The final definition, Zyzzogeton, was written on October 17, 1960; the final etymology was recorded on October 26; and the final pronunciation was transcribed on November 9. The final copy went to the typesetters, R. R. Donnelley, on December 2. The book was printed by the Riverside Press in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The first edition had 2,726 pages (measuring 9 in (23 cm) wide by 13 in (33 cm) tall by 3 in (7.6 cm) thick), weighed 13½ lbs (6.12 kg), and originally sold for $47.50 (about $350 in 2010 dollars). The changes were the most radical in the history of the Unabridged.

Although it was an unprecedented masterwork of scholarship, it was met with considerable criticism for its descriptive (rather than prescriptive) approach. It told how the language was used, not how it ought to be used.

35) Probably the major difference between British and American English is in the choice of vocabulary. We have reviewed some major lexical differences between American and British English.

Sometimes different words are used for the same idea, for example American apartment and British flat; or the same word has different meanings in the two varieties, for example mad means angry in American English and it means crazy in British English/

Lexical differences of American English highly extensive on the strength of multiple borrowing from Spanish and Indian languages, what was not in British English. They are: canoe, moccasin, squaw, tomahawk, wigwam, etc. and translation loans: pipe of peace, pale-face.

The main lexical differences between British English and American English are caused by the lack of equivalent lexical units in one of them, divergences in the semantic structures of polysemantic words and peculiarities of usage of some words on different territories. One if the most distinguishing features of the colloquial style is using informal words. There are a lot of slang words in modern American English, which are not common in more conservative British English. It should be noted that non-standard colloquial words are unstable.

For example:

BE AE

1. primary school 1. elementary school

2. secondary school 2. high school

3. further education 3. higher education

In the practical research we have explored the main differences between American and British English. We found 306 examples of such differences and divided them into three groups. The first one includes lexical differences, the second – orthographical differences, and the third one – grammatical differences (namely specificity of using propositions).