The Functions of Religion

Modern sociologists have pursued Durkheim’s line of inquiry and distinguished six functions that religion serves for society. As we shall see later, sociologists have held differing opinions about whether these functions actually serve society’s best interests.

PRIESTLY FUNCTION

In its priestly function religion supports a society’s prevailing culture by making its norms sacred. Thus religious doctrine tends to reinforce the social order, increasing social stability, tightening group rather than individual goals, and curbing social deviance. A somewhat less positive description of this function is that it reinforces the status quo and prevents change.

History reaffirms the close connection between religion and social forces. As we noted in Chapter 11, the early agricultural societies in which women occupied a high status worshipped largely female gods; with industrializa­tion and the beginning of patriarchal society, the gods became male, and women’s status diminished accordingly. US history also shows evidence of this connection. To aid their adaptation to a new culture, immigrant groups often tightly embrace both their ethnic heritage and their religion (as reli­gion strengthens group bonds); immigrant groups whose religious doctrines coincided most closely with the American values of independence and equality have adapted most quickly and have tended to gain the moat power.

PROPHETIC FUNCTION

Religion can be the inspiration for efforts to achieve social change, leading individuals to transcend the roles prescribed for them by the social order. In its prophetic function, religion has guided certain leaders in their efforts to achieve ethical or moral reform. Such individuals have faulted human society as having departed from God's law. The prophetic function of religion finds a modern example in Martin Luther King, Jr., who during the 1950s and 1960s used his religious ideals to attack racist oppression. His followers used nonviolent protest to oppose what they felt to be unjust laws in the United States. Many have paid a high price for their religious purity; Joan of Arc, Mahatma Gandhi, Sir Thomas More, and Jesus of Nazareth are among those who died because their spiritual beliefs were seen as threats to their societies.

The power of the prophet lies in the belief that divine law is superior to human law – a belief stronger than reason and unshakable by the intimi­dation of civil authority. When a person's beliefs are so firm that death holds no threat, the person's power and independence often become extraordi­nary – and may be perceived as springing from a supernatural source. For example, Nat Turner, leader of the famous slave revolt in the early nine­teenth century, felt himself chosen by God to go forth and destroy the oppres­sors of his people:

And on the 12th of May, 1828, I heard a loud noise in the heavens, and the spirit instantly appeared to me and said the Serpent was loosened, and Christ had laid down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and that I should take it on and fight against the Serpent, for the time was fast approaching when the first should be last and the last should be first. (TURNER, 1970:821-823)

The prophetic function of religion, then, is just the opposite of the priestly function: it provides individuals with an impenetrable armor against social criticism and sanction.

SELF-ESTEEM AND IDENTITY FUNCTIONS

Religion can provide individuals with a sense of identity and self-esteem, giving meaning to lives that might otherwise be seen as worthless or to actions and occurrences that could be seen as almost arbitrary. The faithful thus view themselves not as creatures existing in a random universe but rather as divinely inspired and capable of achieving the highest good. By providing this sense of self-worth, religion enables individuals to cope with the doubts and indignities of everyday life.

Many self-help groups have urged individual members to embrace reli­gious beliefs so as to foster greater self-esteem and thus overcome personal obstacles. Alcoholics Anonymous has used its "spiritual program" success­fully in helping seemingly hopeless alcoholics to achieve permanent sobriety. The essence of AA's program, which involves "twelve steps of recovery," is "spiritual growth" and acceptance of "God as we understand Him." Alcoholics Anonymous strives to get members to relabel themselves in positive ways, with a spiritual identity replacing their feelings of drunkenness and guilt (Preston and Smith, 1985).

Liston Pope, in his classic analysis of religious life, Millhands and Preachers (1942), cites an example of religion bolstering low self-esteem. In great detail, Pope describes how the poor compensate for their lack of social status by emphasizing their religious doctrine. Not only did the millworkers' religion strengthen their individual relationships, give them a sense of community, and help ease their hardships, it also convinced them of their superiority. In the eyes of God they, not the wealthy millowners, were the favored, more highly valued people.

BUTTRESS FUNCTION

In its buttress function, religion provides strength, support, and consolation during periods of personal and social crisis. Coretta Scott King, the widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., attributed the great strength she displayed after her husband's assassination in April 1968 to her belief in God; her religion gave her much "support, consolation and reconciliation."

Some sociologists believe that society sorely needs to make use of the buttress function of religion. According to Thomas O'Dea, "Men need emo­tional aid in the face of these elements of the human condition" (O'Dea, 1966:14). Other sociologists, such as Kingsley Davis, disagree, arguing that religion should not become a crutch that keeps people from facing their problems squarely (Davis, 1948:533).

AGE-GRADING FUNCTION

In its age-grading function, religion formalizes and sanctifies the maturation process by providing sacred rites and ceremonies that mark the passage from one level of responsibility to another. One such ceremony is the bar mitzvah at which a 13-year-old boy is formally admitted into the adult Jewish com­munity (Jewish girls may elect to hold a bat mitzvah at the age of 12). Another is the confirmation of Roman Catholic or Anglican adolescents as adult members of their churches. These ceremonies serve to mark new levels of status and responsibility and prepare the youthful members for their adult roles; the cloak of divinity surrounding adulthood encourages the initiates to develop reverence and a sense of obligation to society.

EXPLANATION FUNCTION

Religion provides individuals with an explanation for things beyond human understanding and thus offers a sense of security. Some sociologists take the view of religion expressed by Hans Reichenbach in The Rise of Scientific Philosophy (1951). Reichenbach finds that the function of religion is not unlike that of superstition, which throughout history has attempted to explain what could not be explained by science, or "natural" law. Before our under­standing of lightning as an electrical phenomenon, for example, superstition attributed it to supernatural forces – the display of anger by the gods.

It is often difficult to distinguish between science and religion, for the boundary between the two realms is always shifting, subject to the flux of social forces and belief systems as well as new empirical knowledge. In US history, the "science of religion" dispute has involved intense emotions and has had serious consequences. In 1925 John T. Scopes faced criminal charges for teaching the theory of evolution in the public schools of Tennessee. In the following passage, Irving Stone shows the drama of the famous court­room exchange between Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan:

"You have given considerable study to the Bible, haven't you, Mr. Bryan? [Darrow] asked quietly.

"Yes, I have," replied Bryan. "I have studied the Bible for about fifty years.". . .

"Do you believe Joshua made the sun stand still?" he asked Bryan.

"I believe what the Bible says," answered Bryan doggedly.

"I suppose you mean that the earth stood still?"

"I don't know. I am talking about the Bible now. I accept the Bible absolutely."

"Do you believe at that time the entire sun went around the earth?"

"No, I believe the earth goes around the sun."

"Do you believe that the men who wrote it thought that the day could be lengthened or that the sun could be stopped¹?"

"I believe what they wrote was inspired by the Almighty, and He may have used a language that could be understood at that time—instead of language that could not be understood until Darrow was born."

There was laughter and applause in the courtyard. Bryan beamed. Darrow stood quietly by, expressionless.

"Now, Mr. Bryan, have you ever pondered what would have happened to the earth if it stood still suddenly?"

"No."

"Don't you know it would have been converted into a molten mass of matter?". . .

When Attorney General Stewart objected to Darrow's cross-examination, his own witness Bryan replied, "These gentlemen did not come here to try this case. They came here to try revealed religion. I am here to defend it, and they can ask me any questions they please."

This answer drew sharp applause. Darrow commented acidly, "Great applause from the bleachers."

"From those you call yokels," declared Bryan.

"I never called them yokels."

"That is the ignorance of Tennessee, the bigotry," mocked Bryan.

"You mean who are applauding you?" grinned Darrow.

"Those are the people whom you insult."

"You insult every man of science and learning in the world because he does not believe in your fool religion!" retorted Darrow. (STONE,

1962:44-45)

Such arguments can become disagreements over which side holds the absolute answer. But even many of the most knowledgeable persons today are not so willing to dismiss religion as foolishness. It is possible, as many theologians suggest that the origins of life may resemble biblical accounts more closely than some more scientific explanations. Others see the biblical account as a poetic allegorical explanation. It is clear, however, that religious beliefs change as knowledge of natural phenomena grows.

The six major functions of religion go a long way toward explaining why religion has been able to survive and flourish throughout history, even in such a highly scientific society as ours. Indeed, these functions meet basic human needs for us as both individuals and members of social groups.