§ 40. The pronouns how much and how many are used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns.

How much asks about the amount of something and is used of or with only uncountable nouns.

e.g. How much did you find out? How much money do you need?

How many asks about the number of persons and things and is used of or with only countable nouns, e.g. "There are several people sitting at the fireplace." "How many

can you count?"

How many people took part in the experiment? How many invitations have been sent out?

§ 41. The interrogative pronouns who, what and which may be made emphatic by adding ever. Ever here means something like 'on earth', 'in the world'. Depending on the situation, questions introduced by the emphatic forms in -ever express different emo- tions, such as surprise, anger, despair, indignation, etc. The use of the form in -ever is distinctly colloquial, e.g. Whoever (who ever) can be calling at this time of the night?

Whoever (who ever) heard of such a silly idea?

Whatever (what ever) were you thinking of to suggest such a

plan? He gets up at five o'clock every morning. What ever for?

Conjunctive Pronouns

§42. The pronouns who {whom), whose, what, which, how much, how many and that are used to connect subordinate clauses with the principal clause. Owing to their auxiliary function they are called conjunctive pronouns. At the same time they all have an independent syntactic function in the subordinate clause.

e.g. Do you know who has bought the house? (subject) He always said exactly what he thought, (object) I'm surprised to see how much he had done in so short a

time, (object) I walked past a row of houses whose front doors opened onto

the pavement, (attribute) You'll never guess what present I want him to give me. (at

tribute) I had to find out what he was. (predicative)

When conjunctive pronouns are used in the function of a prepositional object, the preposition is generally placed at the end of the clause.

e.g. The man who(m) I spoke to is my neighbour.

You are the very person that I have been looking for. Who it was done by is for us to find out.

Conjunctive pronouns may be used to introduce different kinds of clauses, except adverbial clauses and appositive clauses, which are introduced only by conjunctions.

e.g. What was done cannot be undone, (subject clause)

The question is which of them is going to be appointed presi- dent of the firm, (predicative clause)

Life in the country isn't what it used to be, you know, (pred- icative clause)

I don't know whose handwriting it is. (object clause) I'll surprise you by what I'll do. (prepositional object clause) He is one of the men whom I can trust, (attributive clause)

§ 43. It is noteworthy that not all the conjunctive pronouns can be used with all kinds of clauses mentioned above. Thus, subject, predicative and object clauses can be introduced by the conjunctive

pronouns who (whom), whose, which and how much, how many. The use of these conjunctive pronouns does not differ from that of the corresponding interrogative pronouns (see §§ 36-40 above). That is no longer a conjunctive pronoun when it introduces one of these clauses, but a mere conjunction because it has no syntactic function in the subordinate clause.

e.g. That he is going to resign is no secret. My guess is that he is in love. I know that he is no fool.

§ 44. Attributive clauses can be introduced by who (whom), whose, which and that. The conjunctive pronouns in this case al- ways refer to some noun (or noun equivalent) in the principal clause. That is why they are also called relative pronouns. The noun they refer to is called their antecedent

The relative pronoun who (whom) is used only of persons.

e.g. They were worried about their nephews who were taking part

in the war. He interviewed several men and engaged one who had been

discharged from the army. He was a man who meant what he said. I wish I knew the man who owns that farm. The hostess continued the introduction, "Here is Mr Swift, a

tutor, and my nephew Maurice, whom he's tutoring." Meg loved her little brother to whom she had been a second

mother.

The relative pronoun whose may be used of both persons and things.

e.g. We went one day to the picture-dealer in whose shop my brother thought he could buy a picture or two.

When it came to literature, young Maurice was the one whose reading in any way compared with Swift's.

There are newspapers in Great Britain whose pages are large- ly filled with news of sport and with stories of film-stars, or accounts of crime and of law-court trials.

The relative pronoun which is used of things.

e.g. She sat down behind the tea tray which the servant had just brought in.

As I walked up the endless stairs of the house in which Strickland lived, I confess I was a little excited.

She obtained some opinions which later I realized were en- tirely sensible.

She had never owned a dress which her girlfriends would con- sider expensive.

Note. With a collective noun used as the antecedent the relative who is used when the individuals forming the group are meant, and the relative which when the group as whole is meant.

e.g. He wanted to interview someone from the team who were now resting. He wanted to interview someone from the team which was winning.

Which is also used if the antecedent of the attributive clause is the whole of the principal clause.

e.g. That day she took her share of the meal, which nowadays she

rarely did.

He invited us to dinner, which was very kind of him. The decision was postponed, which was exactly what he wanted.

The attributive clauses of the above type are always separated from their principal clause by a comma (see the examples above). The relative pronoun which in this type of attributive clauses is rendered in Russian as что.

Which preceded by the preposition of is parallel in meaning to whose when the latter is used of things.

Cf. We crossed the river the current of which was very rapid. We crossed the river whose current was very rapid.

That is used of both persons and things, singular and plural.

e.g. You are the very people that I've been meaning to speak to. He is not a man that can understand such things. That was all the education that she had had during her girl- hood.

She had a wit that was irresistible.

The actress told him of the plays that she had been in and what parts she had had.

That (not who or which or what) is used:

a) after most indefinite pronouns,

e.g. Have you got all that you need?

Sylvia had always had everything that she wanted.

There is not much that can be done.

Fred looked about the room, trying to discover something

that might remind him of Sally. He never says anything that is worth listening to.

b) after nouns modified by an adjective in the superlative de- gree as well as by first or last.

e.g. Yesterday was one of the coldest days that I've ever known. He has written the best book that I've ever read on the sub- ject. It was the first time that he heard of the episode.

c) after a noun modified by same,

e.g. She wore the same dress that I had seen her in at her sister's wedding.

d) when the antecedent is both a person and a thing,

e.g. He talked of the people and the places that he had visited.

Unlike who and which, that cannot be preceded by a pre- position.

Cf. This is the letter about which I told you. This is the letter that I told you about.

Note. When a relative pronoun serves as a prepositional object, the following sentence patterns are possible.

e.g. This is the story of which I spoke. This is the story which I spoke of. This is the story that I spoke of. This is the story I spoke of.

Attributive clauses fall into two groups — non-defining and defining clauses (see "Articles", § 15). That as a relative pronoun is possible only with defining clauses, i.e. attributive clauses that cannot be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning. Note, however, that who and which can be used with both kinds of attributive clauses — defining and non-defining.

e.g. At the time I was reading a book that (which) I had heard so

much about. At the time I was reading an interesting book which later on

I gave as a present to my niece.

I'd like you to meet the girl that (whom) I'm going to marry. She is both charming and clever. I'd like you to meet the

girl, who(m) you are sure to fall for.

Relative pronouns are often dropped in spoken English unless they perform the function of the subject of the sentence or intro- duce non-defining attributive clauses.

e.g. At the party I saw some people I knew personally.

The man I gave up my seat to was very grateful.

Is it the paper you wanted to see?

He went back the way he had come.