- •Introduction
- •Is that morphosyntactic variation is both highly constrained and highly
- •Identified by its syntactic structure as predominantly analytical.
- •Iranian languages; and so on. Members of a language family have a
- •Iranian, and the extinct Hittite and Tocharian. Further subclassifications
- •Indo-European language system is marked by more or less elaborate
- •It is not understood why word orders with the subject before the
- •Invention of arbitrary new items, borrowing new morphemes in these
- •Verbs. And Boy and boys, for example, are two different forms of the
- •In English). So, the lack of grammatical affixes in English is
- •Is obligatory. Therefore grammatical categories is an important
- •Is used to indicate singular objects or referents that can be neither
- •Instrumental, Locative, Vocative).
- •Indefinite objects. A definite object is one that the speaker expects the
- •3) The absence of the article before the countable noun in the plural,
- •Verbs also often reflect the gender of their subject nouns and,
- •Is partially semantic (Ukrainian animate nouns have semantic gender
- •Verbs with their past stems and the past participle formed by way of
- •Infinitive may denote a sheer intention or assurance, annoyance based
- •Including prepositional ones can be used in the passive (the preposition
- •In both languages phrases may be elemental, with one type of
- •In English, dominant in practically all subordinate phrases is the
- •Information mostly through inflection, allows relative flexibility which
- •It a problem to miss out obligatory parts of the sentence. The omission
- •In spite of the one-man show, the game was out of reach. Kyle
It is not understood why word orders with the subject before the
object are much more common than word orders with the object before
the subject. It must be noted that in most languages there is the tendency
to identify the subject with the topic (who or what is being talked
about), and to place the topic at the beginning of the sentence so as to
establish the context quickly.
Some languages can be said to have more than one basic word order.
French is SVO (Je vois Cécile “I see Cécile”), but it incorporates
objective pronouns before the verb (Je la vois literally “I her see”). This
makes French SOV order possible in some sentences. However,
speaking of a language having a given word order is generally
understood as a reference to the basic, unmarked, non-emphatic word
order for sentences with constituents expressed by full nouns or noun
phrases. Ukrainian and Russian, for example, have SVO transitive (with
objects) clauses but free order (SV or VS) in intransitive (without
objects) clauses.
20
In many languages, changes in word order occur due to
topicalization or in questions. However, most languages are generally
assumed to have a basic word order, called the unmarked word order;
other, marked word orders can then be used to emphasize a sentence
element, to indicate modality (such as an interrogative modality), or for
other purposes. For example, English is SVO (subject-verb-object), but
OSV is also possible but seldom: A fearful voyage I had with such a
monster in the vessel. (Ch. Brontë). In English, OSV is a marked word
order because it emphasises the object. OSV word order is also found in
poetry in English.
Phonological classifications. Phonological typology suggests such
types of languages as tone languages (languages with tonemes) and stress
languages (languages in which stress and/or accent play a vital role).
Answer the questions
1. What is the difference between genetic and typological classifications of
languages?
2. What languages are treated as related to English and Ukrainian?
3. What morphological types of languages are distinguished?
4. Looking at the Turkish words given below state the difference between
agglutinative and fusional languages?
ev ‘house’ ev-jik ‘ little house’
ev-ler ‘house-s’ ev-e ‘to a house’
ev-ler-de ‘in the house-s’ el-im-in ‘of my hand’
ev-ler-den ‘from the house-s’ el-im ‘my hand’
Translate intoTurkish: in my house, my houses, my little hands, in my little
hand
5. Prove that there are no pure types of languages. Try to find examples in
English and Ukrainian to illustrate the point.
6. What types do the languages compared belong to? What differences do
they posess?
7. Why is intonation more important for the English utterance if compared
to Ukrainian?
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2. CONTRASTIVE MORPHOLOGY
OF ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN
2.1. Morphemic structure of words
The morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a binary
nature (that can combine form and meaning). Morphemes are classified
into (1) free morphemes and (2) bound morphemes. Free morphemes
appear as independent words (e.g. cat). Bound morphemes do not
constitute independent words, but are attached to other morphemes or
words (e.g. re-connect-ing).
Free morhemes are further subdivided into lexical, lexico-
grammatical and grammatical.The distinction between the two
categories of lexical (content) and grammatical (function) morphemes
is conceptually distinct from the free-bound distinction but partially
overlaps with it in practice. The idea behind the distinction is that some
morphemes express some general sort of referential or informational
content, while other morphemes are heavily tied to a grammatical
function, expressing syntactic relationships between units in a sentence,
or obligatorily-marked categories such as number or tense. Thus (the
roots of) nouns, verbs, adjectives are typically free (content)
morphemes: “throw,” “green, and “sand” are all English content
morphemes. Content morphemes are also often called open-class
morphemes, because they belong to categories that are open to the