0229590_C6FC0_solomon_negash_michael_e_whitman_amy_b_woszczynski_handbook

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

munications, and the explosion of the Internet and technological systems have formed a completely different environment in the daily and working life of millions of people around the world.

Education strives to keep pace with the needs of an era which dictates open, flexible, studentcentered systems without the necessary presence of students in a classroom. Distance education is challenged to tackle effectively the emerging new needs.

theoretical frame of distance education

It is a fact that there have been many definitions of distance learning (DL). Most of them include the separation of the teacher from the student, the impact of an educational organisation, the use of media to form a communication system with the aim of reinforcing interaction, and so forth.

Desmond Keegan (1996) suggests one of the most complete definitions of DL, which includes five fundamental principles:

1.The permanent separation of the teacher from the student during the whole learning process.

2.The impact of an educational institution on the planning of pacing, the production of the teaching package, and the provision of academic and learning support.

3.The implementation of technology and media (i.e., printed material, video, radio frequencies, or personal computer) for the transmissionofthecontentandtheprovision of interaction.

4.The provision of two-way interaction and communication.

5.The permanent absence of a student group, so that students learn more as individuals rather than as a group (Keegan, 1996, p.

50).Keegansupportsthatthefifthprinciple should be reconsidered, since the appearance of student groups is feasible through

the implementation of technology (Keegan, 1996, pp. 46-47).

In DL, the term ‘distance’ refers to the possibility of studying within a frame of physicalgeographical distance between the tutor and the student but without space or time limitations, which differentiates DL from face-to-face education. Physical distance is no longer a hindrance since the variety of media and their appropriate implementation contribute to an education of high quality (Lionarakis, 1999).

ForWedemeyer(1981),themostimportantelement of DL was student’s autonomy. He defined ten characteristic traits of an educational system which emphasise student independence and the use of technology to promote it. DL aims at the motivation of the students to learn on their own and act towards self-directed learning (Lionarakis, 2001).

For some researchers, DL comprises aberrance from face-to-face education. Holmberg (1986) claims that it constitutes a separate form of education. Keegan (1988) claims that DL is a separate field, parallel and complementary to conventional education. However, Shale (1988) thinks that the content of face-to-face educational process is the same as that of DL process. Cropley and Kahl (1983) compare and contrast DL with face-to-face education in terms of psychological aspect and concluded that neither of these sets of principles comprises a separate form.

The advances of OCTs, the globalisation of economy, and the new learning theories necessitatethereconsiderationandfurtherdevelopment of the traditional approaches to DL policies.

The impact of new technologies and their use in education leads Desmond Keegan (1995) to realise that the Internet connection between the tutor and the students at different locations can create a virtual classroom. Michael Moore and Greg Kearsley (1996) considered DL to be an educational process which is performed at different locations and needs the implementation of

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

special techniques for lesson planning, the use of technologicalmediaandcommunicationsystems, and a specific organisational and administrative support. New technologies redefine our perception and definition of DL (Hanson, Maushak, Schlosser, Anderson, Sorensen, & Simonson, 1997). Mike Simmonson provides one of the latest definitions, according to which DL is a typical educational system where students are located in different areas and are linked to the tutor and to each other through interactive means of media telecommunication systems (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2000; Simonson, 2002).

advanced learning technologies

The learning and instruction process are changing with the use of the personal computer as a knowledge tool (Raptis & Rapti, 2004).We are led towards a student-centered environment, which overcomesthebarrierofdistance,andthedifferent location of people no longer considerably affects the communication between them.

ICTplayasignificantroleinthemodernsocial, financial,andeducationalreality.Networks,videoconferencing,and a wealth of technologicaland communications applications are the components of theglobal village(Rheingold,2000).An important condition for the success of the introduction of ICT in the reform of the educational process and learning culture (Raptis & Rapti, 2004) is the achievement of teaching approaches which will serve the needs of the new teaching and learning environment,combinedwiththeconstanttraining and encouragement of the most important part in the educational process, which is the teacher (Vosniadou & Kollias, 2001).

Educational technologies, educational multimedia,anddistancelearningaretheforerunnersof a new era in education (Harley, 2001). Technologicaltools,asitis,arethefirststepinthetransition ofthecontemporarytraditionalclassroomtowards thenewmodelofvirtualclassroom(Norton,2001)

and hybrid school (Anastasiades, 2004; Rosbottom, 2001). At the same time, it is compulsory to create a pedagogical model as the theoretical base which will define the frame to integrate the new educational technologies.

Teaching technology refers to the theory and implementation of planning, developing, using, running, and evaluating the process and learning materials which are conducive to learning (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 1).

The term educational technology does not simply refer to the material and technological media (e.g., software, PC) but to a systematic approach aiming at the improvement of human learning by emphasizing the needs of the tutor and the teaching process.

The term learning technologies refers to the variety of technologies which facilitate the learning and teaching process focusing on the student and the learning process.

ICT are the result of the collaboration of informatics and communications engineering. Computernetworksandhypermediasystemscomprise the new environment of advanced learning technologies (ALT) underlining the development of learning environments on the Internet. They aimattheenhancementofinteractionbetweenstudents, tutors, and learning material and tools, thus providing new prospects for DE (Wegner, 2001; Grigoriadou, Papanikolaou, Cotronis, Velentzas, & Filokyprou, 1999).

ALT alters the concept of space and time in the educational process and expands distance leaning. In face-to-face tuition the simultaneous presence of tutors and students in the classroom is one of the most important elements unchanged throughout time.

advanced learning technologies and asynchronous learning environments

The learning process depends directly on the participation of tutors and students within a com-

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

munity (Bruner, 1990; Vygotsky, 1978). Students createtheirownlearningconditionsthroughsocial interaction, exchanging ideas with their peers or otherswhosharecommoninterests(Bruner,1990; Solomon, 1987; Tobin, 1990; Vygotsky, 1978).

A learning environment is a complex system comprised of associated factors which influence interactive learning with and irrespective of individual and cultural differences (Salomon, 1995). Some of these factors in a learning environment are the location, the prearranged behaviors, the expectations and understanding, the set context for the achievement of clear goals guided by an individual with responsibility and authority, and the technological support.

The main aim of a complete Web-based learning environment is to guarantee the essential conditions (i.e., pedagogical, administrative and organisational) which will fulfill distance learning through the use of advanced learning Internet technologies (Anastasiades, 2003).

ThefirstphaseofimplementingaWeb-based learning environment focused on:

1.The learning management systems, which contributed to the automatisation of administrative and organisational procedures, such as registration of students, curriculum, organisation of learning activities, learning resources management, monitoring performanceofstudents,performancereports,and so forth.

2.The content management systems (CMS), which emphasized the production, management, research, and distribution of the learning material.

3.The virtual learning environments (VLE), which constitute an information environment especially designed for the encouragement of interaction among the participants (tutors and students). Students not only have an active role but also are fundamental contributors to the configuration of the virtual environment, with the aim of rendering it

a forum which will promote collaborative learning through a variety of learning activities (Dillenburg, Scheider, & Syntena, 2002; Dillenburg, 1999).

VLE support the communication and collaboration between a student and a tutor (Dori, Barak, & Adir, 2003; Light, Nesbitt, Light, & White,2000),thecommunicationamongstudents (Guzdial & Turns, 2000), and the formation of a collaborative environment for the tutors (Nachmias & Mioduser, 2000; Sheremetov & Arenas, 2002).

Only a few years ago there were attempts of complete systems—educational platforms, such as the WebCT (Clark, 2002), the Blackboard (Yi & Hwang, 2003), and the Stellar (Stellar, 2003)— which provide a user-friendly environment for the application of DE through the Internet.

Indistancelearningthesimultaneouspresence of students and tutors is not necessary (asynchronous DE)astheycanchoosethelocation,thetime, and, in most cases, the pace they will participate in a ‘self-directed learning’ (Lionarakis, 1998).

Asynchronous Education includes:

•Self-teaching, where the main tool of learning is the educational material (e.g., books, CBT, Internet, etc.) and the student can decide on the pace of learning. Such an example is foreign languages learning through multimedia, books, cassettes, and so forth.

•Semiautonomous learning, in which the student can study the learning material and communicate at prearranged meetings with the assigned tutor by means of face-face meetings, e-mail, chat rooms, forums, and so forth.

•Collaborative learning, in which the communication between the tutor and the students is asynchronous; the students study individuallyfollowinganarrangedschedule of assignments.

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

TheWeb-basedlearningenvironmentprovides considerable advantages to the students participating in distance learning programs but also to those who study in the conventional way and wish to enhance the benefits of this process (Cornford

&Pollock, 2003; Dearing, 1997; Forsyth, 2001; Maier & Warren, 2000; Ryan, Scott, Freeman,

&Patel, 2000).

We should consider that the implementation of a Web-based learning environment varies from one institution to another, as the features of the

Web-based learning environment are defined by the aims of the institution and not vice versa. For example, an institution may use a Web-based learning environment to support and improve its conventional courses. On the other hand, the use of a Web-based learning environment may completely replace the traditional system, dependent on the physical presence of tutors and students. In this case, the administrative, communicative, and learning activities of the institution are conducted through the Internet.

synchronous learning technologies and distance learning: interactive videoconferencing

Advanced technologies of synchronous transmissiondefineanewperspectiveineducation,mainly

DE, as under pedagogical conditions they can create a dynamic environment of collaboration and two-way interaction (Anastasiades, 2003a).

In the future, videoconferencing will play a significant role in the field of DE (Abbott, et al., 1993; Chen & Willits, 1998; Fillion, Limayem, & Bouchard, 1999; Martin, 2005) and adult education (Anastasiades, 2000; Dallat et al., 1992).

Interactive videoconferencing (IVC) technology allows students at two or more distant locations to create a collaborative environment at the same time (Gibson & Cohen, 2003; Suthers, 2001). The communication may include data and graphics exchange (Brown, 2001; Finn, Sellen, & Wilbur, 1997) and data sharing (Gürer, Kozma, & Millán, 1999).

Typically, a computer mediated conference (CMC) is based on text but increasingly it includes drawings, photographs, and other images (e.g., emoticons). Such examples are e-mails, chat rooms, discussion boards, text messaging, instant messaging, shared databases, or applica- tion-specific groupware.

Videoconferencing can contribute to the creation of an interactive environment of collaborative distance learning effectively under specificpedagogicalandtechnologicalconditions.

Within this context, teachers and students at two or more locations will be able to come into contact, communicate, and collaborate in real time through sound, live image, and data (Damanakis & Anastasiades, 2005).

By applying (IVC) we can create a learning environment which features interaction and flexibility, fosters collaboration, uses a variety of media, allows access to multiple information sources,anddemandsanaffordablecost(Sullivan, Jolly, Foster, & Tompkins, 1994).

For the IVC to be effective, it should meet certain requirements such as the time-consuming teaching preparation, training of the lecturers, use of technology, and so forth (Lawyer-Brook, 1991).

Particulardifficultiesareconnectedtotheapplication of videoconferencing between remote locations, the technical or organisational restrictions at some classes, and the management of different environments at schools (Barker, 1991).

International literature provides numerous references to the educational usage of videoconferencing, mainly in higher/tertiary education, dealing with teaching (Coventry, 2000; Mitchell et al., 1993; Pitcher, Davidson, & Goldfinch,

2000;bReed & Woodruff, 1995; Unruh, 2000), broadband issues (Smyth, 2005; Hearnshaw, 2000), and cost (Twigg, 2002). A number of studies suggest new teaching methods aiming at the enhancement of interaction and there are guides advising effective videoconferencing (Digital Bridges: K-12 videoconferencing; Hayden, 1999; Robinson, 1997). However, there is not adequate researchfocusingonthedesigningandapplication

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

of a holistic pedagogical model for the utilisation of videoconferencing in education.

blended learning environments

Synchronous and asynchronous tele-education are not competitive forms but they can—and sometimes have to—be combined to create a blended collaborative learning environment (Anastasiades,2005c).Thepedagogicalapproach, on which we base the designing of a blended collaborative learning environment, is a key issue analysed further on.

Pedagogical conditions for the development of distance learning courses

Distance learning takes advantage of the constant advances of multimedia and Internet technology and emerges as an exciting and promising field

(since students and tutors expect much from it), offering new prospects to learning and access to information and knowledge (Makrakis, 2000). A great many scholars argue that the era of an open, flexible,student-centered,interactivelearningof high quality, free of spatial and time restrictions is forthcoming.

However, we should have moderate expectations regarding the impact of ALT on the every day practice of distance learning (Simonson et al., 2000).

Significant reservations refer to:

1.The effect of digital divide. Not all individualshavethebasicskillsofInternetuse,which deters the wide access of the population to the digital era of DE (Anastasiades, 2005b). We should also consider that the telecommunications capacity of an average user cannot support all the applications provided by ALT, while the access cost is relatively high in many countries (Richter, 1999).

2.The risk of using ICT as a method and not as a tool, which will result in the distortion of the pedagogical principles of distance learning (Lionarakis, 1999). Furthermore, we should take into consideration that nowadays,intheInternetera,DLmayberegarded as an easy or inexpensive way to respond to the increasing demand for educational opportunities. The main approach worldwide and especially in the USA regards DL more as a technological and organisational entity, without focusing on its pedagogical aspect, the qualitative production of the educational package, and the procedure supporting the studenttodiscoverlearning.Itisthencrucial to underline that learning cannot be seen as a product, which is transmitted through the teaching process from a source to another, orfromonefieldtoanotherorevenfroman empirical-philosophical domain to another (Lionarakis, 2003).

3.The risk of underestimating the quality of the provided education due to programs of questionable quality which are designed for profit (Connick, 1999). Illustrative example of this is the phrase ‘digital mills of degrees,’ coined by David F. Noble, Prof. of History at York University, Toronto. James Dunderstadt (1997), honorary President of the University of Michigan, refers to a ubiquitous university, where digital networks can minimise the restrictions of time and location, or even of reality itself. Digital technologywillenableindividualstoengage in learning at any place, at any time.

4.The possibility that the prolonged daily activity on the PC lead to isolation and deprivation of social interaction, with the following negative social and psychological consequences (Kokkos & Lionarakis, 1999).

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Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

Figure 1. The blended learning model

Blended Learning Model

Asynchronous Learning

Synchronous Learning Environment

Environment

	Interactive
	Videoconferencing
	-Technology (IP,ISDN)	Learning	Interactive
	-Point to Point, Multi	Material	Collaboration
	point	-Text	-Chat
		-Hypermedia	-Forum
	-Data Sharing
		-Video	- Learning
	Live Webcast
		Lectures	Communities

Digital Library

blended leaning Model: the Pedagogical aPPRoach

general description

The proposed pedagogical approach suggests the functional combination (blended learning model) ofadvancedlearningtechnologiesofsynchronous (videoconferences)andasynchronous(Web-based learning platform) learning (see Figure 1) in order to provide an interactive learning environment

Going from face-to-face teaching to the new blended learning environment for adults is not an easyprocess,asitrequiresoptimalcombinationof learning theories, principles of distance learning, principles of adult theory, interactive media, and instructional methods and techniques. .

Adult learners include working adults with family responsibilities, older workers who may not feel confident about returning to school, and

peoplewhoarecurrentlyintheworkforceandwho need to upgrade skills and knowledge (McIntyre, 1997). So we have to meet the needs of adult learners in developing blended learning courses, and find out the optimal combination of learning theories that match with our learning goals.

The proposed pedagogical approach is based on three pillars:

1.Adult theory.

2.Learning theory

3.Distance learning basic assumptions and principles

the adult learning theory

The adult education (AE) literature generally supports the idea that teaching adults should be approached in a different way than teaching children.

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

Figure 2. The pedagogical approach: Steps and methodology

		Learning Theory
The Needs of Adult Learners
in Developing Web Based
Learning Environments

Distance Learning

Assumptions

and Principles

Synchronous Learning

Methodology

ǹ- Synchronous

Learning Methodology

Evaluation

Methodology

Rogers (1969) advocates an unstructured method of teaching where the teacher’s role is that of a facilitator and the student is allowed the freedom to pursue self-discovered learning activities. A summary of Rogers’ ideas about what he terms ‘experiential learning.’

Knowles (1970) introduces the concept of andragogy as ‘the art and science of helping adults learn.’ He contrasts andragogy to the more traditional pedagogy, which he argues is not always appropriate for teaching adults on the basis of four crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about child learners on which traditional pedagogy is based.

Hiltz (1994) reports that the virtual classroom environment resulted in better mastery of course materials, greater student satisfaction, and a higher level of student-reported learning than traditional classroom experiences. According to

Stilborne and Williams, (1996), distance adult learners will learn only what they feel they need to learn, learn by comparing past experience with new experience, need immediate feedback concerning their progress, want their learning to be practical, try to avoid failure (dispositional barrier),andfinally,donotalllearnthesameway

(personal learning styles). Research on learning processes in face-to-face groups indicates that developmentofsocialclimateisimportantinorder to make students feel like insiders in the learning environment, thus contributing to students’ motivation, involvement, and contentment (Chan & Rapman, 1999).

During the last years, research in the field of adult education has systematically investigated the way in which adult students perceive and interpret reality according to their own needs and experiences (Kokkos, 2007). Studying the ways of adult learning, Rogers (2003) emphasises not

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

the cognitive procedure as much, but the relationship between teacher and students and argues that the goal of the trainer in adult education should be to enhance the ability of the participants to define themselves and nurture active citizens.

Emancipation in adult education has been an imperative issue for many distinguished scholars. Jarvis argues that emancipation is a fundamental goal in AE (Jarvis, 2004; Kokkos, 2007). Freire also refers to the ultimate value of emancipation of adult students, taking into account his social and cultural experience from the Third World countries (Freire, 1984).

Thus, the focal point of contemporary scholars is the needs of adult students, which more often than not are expressed in a distorted way and lead to phobic behaviors toward new knowledge (Illeris, 2002, 2003). An issue of utmost importance is to realise that adult students should be supported by trainers so as to understand the causes creating their needs within their individual social and cultural identity. This critical understanding aims at their release from beliefs which worsen their introversion and the assumption of an active personal and social role based on the current trends (Kokkos, 2007).

But how can we transform the sentiments of adult students critically in order to lead them to emancipation? The answer to this key issue can be given by the ‘transforming learning theory,’ introduced by Mezirow (1980, 1981, 1985, 1990,

1991) and further analysed by τον Brookfield

(1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996, 2001).Mezirow’sthoughtsarebasedonthecritical theory of the School of Frankfurt.

Mezirow (1981) discusses his theory that critical reflection and awareness of ‘why we attach the meaning we do to reality’ may be two of the most significant distinguishing characteristics of adult learning. According to Mezirow, the role of the educator is to help the learner focus on and examine the assumptions that underlie their beliefs, feelings, and actions, to assess the consequences of these assumptions, identify and

explore alternative sets of assumptions, and test the validity of assumptions through effective participationinreflectivedialog.Transformative learning involves becoming more reflective and critical, being more open to the perspectives of others, being less defensive, and more accepting of new ideas. An elaboration of the idea of critical reflection in an attempt to develop a theoretical foundationforexplaininghowtransformationsoccurinadultlearning.Brookfield(1994)addresses fourmajorresearchareasinadultlearning,includ- ingself-directedlearningandcriticalreflection(or transformational learning), in order to explore the claim that adult learning is a discretely separate domain that has little connection to learning in childhood or adolescence.

the learning theory

According to our approach, adults need to construct their own understanding of each concept so that the primary role of teaching is not to lecture, explain, or otherwise attempt to ‘transfer’ knowledge, but to create situations for students that will foster their making of the necessary mental constructions (Schiller & Mitchell, 1993; Scnurr & Smith, 1995). According to Garrison (2006), we have to establish a climate that will create a communityofinquiryandacriticalreflectionand discourse that will support systematic inquiry. So according to our approach constructivism is the optimal learning theory in order to achieve our learning goals (Anastasiades, 2005c, 2006a).

Distance Learning Basic Assumptions

and Principles

Accordingtotheproposedtheoreticalbackground we adopt the ADEC (1999) guiding principles for distance teaching and learning (Anastasiades, 2006a).

The current methodology accepts the following principles:

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

Figure 3. The proposed blended learning pedagogical approach for adults

Transformation	Constructivism
Adult Theory
	ADEC
Distance Learning
	Principles
Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach
	Adult Knowledge
Asynchronous	Synchronous
Learning
	Learning
	Evaluation
	Methodology

•The learning experience must have a clear purpose with tightly focused outcomes and objectives.

•The learner is actively engaged.

•The learning environment makes appropriate use of a variety of media.

•Learning environments must include prob- lem-based as well as knowledge-based learning.

•Learning experiences should support interaction and the development of communities of interest.

designing an asynchRonous leaRning enviRonMent

components

According to Claus (2003), the development of a Web-based learning environment is modeled by four main factors:

•The content

•The format

•The technological infrastructure

•The pedagogical perspective

Blending Interactive Videoconferencing and Asynchronous Learning in Adult Education

Figure 4. Asynchronous learning environment: Subsystems

Web-based Learning Environment

		Learning Resources
Human Resources				Technological Resources
Teachers		Educational material in		Hardware
Tutors		digital form Books, notes,		Software
Students		articles		Manuals

Through a systemic approach, a Web-based learning environment comprises of three subsystems:

1.The subsystem of pedagogical organisation of learning, which regards the human resources(i.e.,teachers,tutors,andstudents) as members of a collaborative learning community. Most scholars recommend constructive learning, which is quite difficult to apply (Mikropoulos, 2000).

2.The subsystem of technological organisation,namelythetools,patterns,andmethods of designing and building of the learning environment according to the needs of the learning community.

3.The subsystem of social organisation, which promotes the culture of collaborative learning in the context of a student-centered teaching approach.

The components of a Web-based learning environment are the human, learning, and technological resources.

In its modern form a Web-based learning environment is a user-friendly environment, which is at the service of its human resources (teachers, tutors, students and system managers) with the aim of supporting:

•The designing and organisation of courses

•The development of learning content

•The provision of the necessary resources in

digital form (i.e., notes, articles, visual and audio material, books, etc.).

•The formation of an environment of interactive communication (i.e., chat, forum, e-mail, etc.)

•The completion of organisational and administrative procedures (i.e., registration, assessment, performance reports ,etc.)

•The organisation of a wide variety of learning activities

fundamental functions and features

For DL to meet the needs of the support of collaborative learning and active participation of the students, it must follow some basic principles, which, according to Broady (1996), are: learning goals and content presentation, interactions, assessment and measurement, instructional media and tools, and learner support and services.

The fundamental functions that comprise a complete Web-based learning environment are the following:

designing Patterns of a web-based learning environment

The designing of learning environments should take into consideration various psychological, philosophical, and technological stances (Hannafin & Land, 1997). The traditional models of teaching development of conventional learning environments (Bobbitt, 1918; Dick &Carey, 1996;