5)Characteristics of constitutions.

The word “constitution is used in two different senses , the abstract and the concrete. The constitution of a State in the former sense is the system of laws, customs and conventions. A constitution in the letter sense is the document in which the most important laws of the country are authoritatively ordained.

A constitution is “written” when most important constitutional laws are specially enacted. The American Constitution is “written” one. “The British Constitution is “unwritten” . The British Constitution includes the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement and the Parliament Act of 1911. Constitution written or unwritten , can be divided into “rigid” and “flexible” . The aim of the rigid is to guarantee their stability. Flexible constitution can be modified though the simple procedure. Constitution may be established by sovereign power 1) either by a free sovereign people or 2) by a plenary power of the head of the state.

Constitution may be classified according to political principles 1) democratic 2) authoritarian .

6)Human rights.

Human rights (natural ) are rights which some hold to be “inalienable” and belonging to all humans.

Inalienable rights cannot be granted, limited, bartered away or sold away. Human rights can be divided into two categories : positive and negative rights. Positive rights follow mainly from the Continental legal tradition. Negative rights follow mainly from the Anglo-American legal tradition. Human rights are aimed to follow some basic rules. One of the most significant classification of human rights is the division of human rights into three generation. First-generation rights include freedom of speech, the rights to a fair trial, and freedom of religion. They were first enshrined at the global level be the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Second-generation rights are related to equality. They are fundamentally social, economic, and cultural in nature. Third-generation rights focus essentially on fraternity. They cover group and collective rights: the rights of self-determination , to economic and social development, and participate in the common heritage of mankind.

7. Problem of Ecology.

Ecology is a branch of science that studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interaction between organisms and their environment.

The main concept of ecology is ecosystem. Ecosystem can be defined as any situation where there is a continual interaction between organisms and their environment. Ecologists study dynamics and changes in ecosystems. Sometimes changes can bring in favourable results but there could be situations of ecological crises too. It may be, for example, that the environment quality degrades compared to the species’ needs, this may cause extinction of some species like panda, whales, great apes.

Ecological crises may be local or global. In the case of a global crises the consequences are much more significant. Examples of some global crises are nuclear meltdown in Chernobyl, global warming, deforestation, land degradation, ozone layer hole, climate change, overpopulation, pollution and others.

The pollution of our natural environment endangers our personal health. The illegal disposal of waste into waterways can significantly damage livelihood and hurt an entire community. It is necessary that government take some remedial actions to reduce hazardous waste, on the one hand, and encourage alternative ecofriendly technologies, on the other hand. Some new laws should be enacted to protect the environment and to impose penalties for too much pollution. Germany and Sweden, for example, use green tax for das emissions which allows to lower pollution levels, moreover, it stimulates energy efficiency.

Human ecology tries to help people solve problems with the environment.