Communicative & structural types of sentences

I . Structural approach. Acc to it the 1^st stage s-ce are subdivided into

- simple →one-member: nominal (Fire!) and verbal (Do it!)

→two-member: complete (When are you going?) and incomplete or elliptical (To the cinema.)

- composite → compound and complex ;

2. Acc. to the purpose of utterance;

• declarative→ negative and affirmative (their purpose is that they express a statement giving information;

• interrogative s-ces (their purpose of utterance is to obtain information, to ask for infor.→ they can be subdivided into verifying questions in which case the speaker has already got some infor. And wants to know whether the infor. Is true or false. Ex. Is it Potapov Street? In this case we use general ?-s→ verifying ?-s. Identifying ?-s→ a certain part of infor. Is missing and the person wants to know it. Ex. where do you live? Who are you going to the country with? (special, alternative ?-s).

• Imperative s-ces. Their purpose is to make an addressee perform a certain action .- inducement (побуждение).

• Exclamatory s-ces. Their purpose is to express the speaker’s emotional state. Ex What a lovely day! Some scholars, however, think that emotional s-ces should not be treated as a special type but they should be included into a Noun of statements because their main purpose is also to give infor.

These 4 types of s-ces differ one from another in their following features: word order (Is it room 25?), the use of auxiliaries (Do you smoke? Don’t do it), the use of special interrogative words (who, when, which, why), a special syntactic structure (in imperative no subj.-, intonation (↓,↑).

The article.

The article is a form-word which functions as a noun determiner.

Indefinite Article

There are two variants of this article: "a" (before consonants),"an" (before vowels). By origin the IA is a numeral in the meaning "one". That's why it occurs only before nouns in the singular.

In speech the IA most often introduces the referent of its noun into the situation of speech for the first time: A nurse was coming from the first tent.

Definite article. By origin this article is a demonstrative pronoun with the meaning "that". Sometimes it occurs in a demonstrative meaning-even at present: I had no idea what the future held and at the time I did not care.

Functions of articles

The articles have morphologic,syntactic and communicating functions. The morphologic function of the articles consists in serving as a formal indicator of the noun: the presence of the article signals that what follows is a noun. It can also serve as a signal of substantivisation: the rich.

The articles have two syntactic functions:

- the articles separates the noun phrase from other parts of the sentence: John has bought a magazine/ an interesting magazine/ an interesting English magazine.

- the article may connect sentence within a text by correlating a noun it modifies with some word or a group of words in the previous context: John has bought a book. The book is interesting.

- The article also have the communicating function. A noun with the indefinite article may introduce new information in the sentence: it is then the focus of communication. A noun with the definite article in the initial position usually indicates given information and is not the focus of communication.

The indefinite article

Nominating function – it serves to name an object or to state what kind of object is meant. He gave her a cigarette.

Aspective function – (with countable nouns) – serves to bring out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. He had almost a supernatural courage.

The definite article

The individualizing function – (with countable nouns) – the definite article serves to single out an object or several objects from all objects of the same class. Margo took up the telephone.

The generic function - (with uncountable nouns in the singular) – serves to indicate that the noun becomes a composite image of the class: The tiger has always had the reputation of being a man-eater.

Restricting function- (with uncountable nouns) – the definite article restricts the material denoted by a concrete uncountable noun to a definite quantity, portion or to a definite locality: He slowly pulled on his gloves, concentrating on each fold in the leather.

Absence of the articles(the Zero Article)

The nominating function – (both with countable and uncountable nouns) – it is parallel to the use of the indefinite article with singular countable nouns. The place smelled of dust.

DA is used:

1. When the person, thing, event, etc. (referent) is already mentioned in the given situation of speech

2. When any noun is modified by a restrictive attribute or a restrictive attributive clause: I’ll never forget the town in which I was born.

3. When the situation of speech itself makes the referent definite: Go to the blackboard (in the classroom).

4. before the names of unique referents: the sun, the moon, the sky, the world, the universe, the earth.

5. with nouns preceded by adjectives in the superlative degree, the pronoun "same", the adjectives “proper", "right". "wrong”: It was the happiest day in his life. He had taken the wrong tone.

6. With personal names: with personal names in the plural, denoting a whole family: The Davidsons lived in the next house.

7. with the names of historical events: the Renaissance.

8. Names of buildings, hotels, restaurants, ships, newspapers, clubs, organizations, geographical names.

IA is used: 1. When the referent of the noun is mentioned for the first time: From a hill he saw the city.

2. Before predicative class nouns (without any specification): You are a fine child.

3. In the generalizing meaning (here in its meaning the article is near to the pronoun "'any"): A sentence is a language unit. A horse with a broken leg cannot run.

4. In its original numerical meaning of "one”: I’ll wait a minute.

6. in exclamatory sentences beginning with "what": What a lovely picture it is!

7. with personal names: when a person is one of the family, clan: he was a Burton before his marriage; Absence of the article

The most typical cases of the absence of articles are: 1. Before plural nouns if the corresponding singular noun is used with the IA: John is a student. - John and Mary are students. 2. Before non-count abstract and mass (material) nouns used in the most general sense: We walked forward in silence. Life isn't all fun.

Used:

1. with the names of some diseases: appendicitis, fever, malaria, typhoid

.2. With nouns denoting titles, rank, dignity, relationship and used as appositions: Lord Byron, Sir Walter Scott, Aunt Molly, Miss Garnet.

3. With personal names preceded by the adjectives young, old, little, poor, dear, honest which have emotional coloring and are parts of the proper names: Old Jolyon

5. With nouns denoting dignity, title, post, when they follow the head-nouns in appositive of-phrase: He was awarded the title of hero. He occupied the post of Minister of education.

6. With predicative nouns introduced by the conjunction "as", e.g. Mr. Davidsont will act as referee.

7. Before nouns followed by the adverb "enough”: Peter began to fear that he was not man enough to get and hold a job.

8. With the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail, hospital, church, when they lose their concrete meanings and express the purpose for which their referents serve: He’s in hospital.