In such cases the demonstrative subject is called anticipatory (which introduces someone or something).

The demonstrative subject may also express the thing or the idea denoted b}' some word, words or even the whole of context in the previous narration. In this case the demonstrative subject is called anaphoric (substituting or preventing repetition), e.g. A young and clever man was coming into that lovely place from Pans. It was like a man coming from Heaven. (It is an anaphoric subject).

The demonstrative subject may be expressed by the demonstrative pronouns this, that or b}1 the personal pronoun it.

d)The negative subject makes the whole sentence negative. It is usually expressed b}' the negative pronouns nobody, nothing or b}' a noun preceded either by the negative pronoun no orb}' the negative panicle.not. e.g. Nothing can move him.

c) The interrogative subject occurs in interrogative sentences and is expressed by interrogative pronouns, e.g. What has happened9

The impersonal subject neither denotes nor points to any person or thing and serves only as a structural element of the sentence. It is always expressed by the personal pronoun it. The impersonal subject may be used in the following sentences:

1) Sentences describing various states of nature or natural phenomena as: It is hot. It rams.

2) Denoting distance relations: It's far from here.

3) Denoting time relations: It's late. (7 o'clock)

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4) Expressing some state of things in general: It's all over with Mr. Grey. It's hard (difficult).

5) Containing certain motives for performing an action: It's wonderful to rest here.

In connection with the last type there are two points of view. The first one is that in such sentences there are two subjects, the formal // which is a structural element and the real subject to rest in our case.

The second point is that there is only one subject /7 whereas the infinitive or a predicative construction or a subordinate clause here serve as apposition to the subject.

The second point of view is perhaps more well-grounded as the classification of the subject into formal and real seems hard to justify in general syntactical theory as there are no principles upon which this division ma}' be based.

Types of Subjects I According to Structure

1. a noun

2. a personal pronoun

3. a demonstrative pronoun

4. an indefinite pronoun

5. a substantivized adjective

6. a numeral

7. an infinitive

8. a gerund

9. a whole phrase

1. Subjective with the Infinitive

2. Subjective with the Participle

3. Gerundial Construction

4. For-to Infinitive Construction

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II According to Content

1. Personal Subject proper

2. Indefinite personal Demonstrative subject Negative subject Interrogative subject

1. States of nature, natural phenomena

2. Distance relations

3. Time relations

4. States of things in general

5. Motives for performing an action

The Predicate

The predicate is one of the two principal parts of the sentence which denotes an action or property of a thing or a person, expressed by the subject. The predicate does not depend on any other part of the sentence. The predicate may be classified into two ways, one of which is based on its structure and the other is based on the morphological characteristics of the predicate. If we take the structural classification as the basic one. we shall have the following types: the simple predicate and the compound predicate.

From the point of view of its morphological realization the simple predicate may be subdivided into the simple verbal predicate and the nominal simple predicate. A distinctive feature of the simple verbal predicate is the presence of a finite form of the verb. In Modern English the verb may be found both in a simple (synthetical) form and in a complex (analytical) form therefore the simple verbal predicate may be expressed both svnthcticallv by a simple form and analytically by a complex form.

E.g. She reads much.

I've been looking for you for about an hour.

In Modern English there is a special type of a verbal predicate which is expressed by means of phraseological units, e.g. to take care, to get rid of. to have a smoke, to lose sight of, to catch hold of. to make a speech, etc.

In connection with this type of the predicate there is a great variety of opinions. Most grammarians, however, treat this type of the predicate as a

subdivision of a simple verbal predicate because it expresses one idea. The peculiarity of this predicate lies in the fact that the verb used in a phraseological unit has a very general meaning and it is the noun that completes and particularizes the meaning of the whole combination. The verb fonns one unite with the noun which cannot be treated as an object to this verb. Therefore the kind of the predicate may be taken as one of the types of the simple verbal predicate and it may be termed a phraseological predicate (M.Ganshina calls it a group-verb predicate), e.g. He started, made a short run and stopped.

The simple nominal predicate is denoted by a noun or an adjective without a link-verb. Such kind of a predicate is rare in English and yet it is a living type and must be regarded as such. The sphere of its use is mainly of two kinds:

1. In the sentences where the immediate context makes it impossible to suggest the idea that the subject and the predicate are connected. Sentences of this type are always exclamatory, e.g. My wife a fool!9 My ideas obsolete!

2. In sentences in which the inversion is used. In such sentences the predicate comes first, the subject next and no link-verb is either used or possible, e.g. Splendid game, football!

Participle I or Infinitive may be used as a simple nominal predicate, e.g. Helen speaking (telephone call).

Sentences with a simple nominal predicate are two-member sentences.

The Compound Predicate

Morphologically the compound predicate may also be subdivided into two types: compound verbal predicate and compound nominal predicate. Irrespective of the number of words constituting the compound predicate there must be two components of which one must be a finite form of the verb and the other a word which carries the main meaning of the predicate.

The finite verb is such a verb whose lexical meaning is weakened to a very great extent and therefore it serves to express the grammatical characteristics of the predicate. If a finite verb of a compound predicate is a link-verb followed by this or that nominal part of speech we deal with a compound nominal predicate, e.g. His life was miserable.

When a verb is used as a link-verb, it loses its primary lexical meaning and acquires the abstract meaning of being in a certain state (He is a student). of passing into a new state (He became a teacher), of remaining in a certain state (He remained silent) or of seeming or appearing in a certain state (He seemed pale]. Accordingly there are four kinds of nominal predicates: compound nominal predicates of being, becoming, remaining, and seeming

or appearing.

If a finite verb is a modal verb followed by an infinitive or if it is an aspective verb showing the beginning, the duration or the end of an action followed by a gerund then we deal with a compound verbal predicate either modal or aspective.

E.g. You can do this early. It ceased raining.

In Modern English there are cases which are treated differently by different grammarians.

E.g. I wish to help you. I try to find it. We hoped to do this. He intended to read this book. I want to go there.

In connection with these sentences two opinions have been advanced. On the one hand the finite verbs in these sentences may be looked upon as verbs denoting a simple verbal predicate which is followed by an infinitive in the function of an object. As a certain proof of this point of view is the fact that these verbs may be followed by nouns in the function of an object.

Cf: He intended to read the book. He intended nothing of the kind. I want this book.

The second point of view is that in these sentences we dea! with a modal compound verbal predicate not with a simple verbal predicate. This point of view is more preferable because the verbs to wish, wain, hope, intend, tiy. etc. have very much in common with modal verbs because they do not express an action in the proper sense of this word. The verbs usually mean that the subject is either willing (intention) or implied to perform a certain action and the action itself is denoted by an infinitive. That is why in such cases we should better speak of modal compound verbal predicate as the verbs M'/.v/г. want, hope, expect, intend, attempt, in; endeavour, long, desire. etc. cannot be considered as verbs of full predication which is absolutely riCccsSai'v ii a verb is used in tnc iunction 01 a simple vcrbai prccicatc.

To modal compound verbal predicates refer modal expressions and an infinitive: to be able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going to.

Such constructions as he began reading, she finished writing are also treated differently. On the one hand the verbs ю begin, to finish, to continue may be followed by pure nouns used as objects, e.g. I finished this book.

And there is an opinion that in the sentence I finished reading the predicate

is a simple verbal one and reading is an object expressed by a gerund. However, such verbs as to begin, to continue and the like associated with a verbal denoting an action lose to a very great extent their lexical dependence because the main meaning of the predicate is carried either by a gerund or by an infinitive.

If it is so then the function of such verbs is very much weakened syntactically therefore the two elements are very closely connected and in this combination the second component is the main one from the semantic point of view while the first element ascribes to the predicates some aspective characteristics. Therefore we call these predicates as aspective compound verbal predicates denoting either the beginning, continuation or the completion of a certain process or action which is expressed by a verbal.

Double Predicate

In connection with such sentences as He sal pale. He came home tired, He returned quite a grown up person there exist a variety of opinions. Some grammarians consider that such verbs as.?//, return, come. etc. though fully preserving their concrete lexical meaning perform the function of a link-verb and are followed by predicatives/ja/e, tired т out case and the predicate in such sentences is said to be a compound nominal one.

The other point of view is that in such sentences we deal with quite a peculiar type of predicate. Certain facts have been advanced to prove that this type of a predicate cannot be treated as a compound nominal predicate. The matter is that a finite verb in sentences of this type (He sal pale) conveys its complete meaning and can be used without any other parts of speech which usually complete the meaning of link-verbs, e.g. He sat. She came.

But the main point of the meaning of a whole sentence in such cases is expressed by the information conveyed by a noun or an adjective following such verbs. In the given sentences certain changes may be performed: He sat pale. He was pale when he sat. She came home tired. She was tired when she came home.

These transformations prove that in such cases the finite verb besides being a predicate in itself also performs the function of a link-verb. Thus. such sentences combine both a simple verbal predicate came, returned and a compound nominal predicate wax tired, etc. which in a sentence merge into one predicate, that is a double predicate.

If we take a sentence with a compound nominal predicate we may see that no transformations are possible in this case. e.g. She became a teacher.

Therefore we may say that the double predicate consists of two components which ascribe two different properties to the subject in the

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single act of predication whereas the compound nominal predicate ascribes to the subject only one property.

Accordingly, the double predicate may be classified into four groups:

1. The processional qualificative double predicate: We splashed along unheeded as we thought.

2. The qualificative-qualificative double predicate: I'm happy married you.

3. The processional-processional double predicate: He strode along looking for a taxi.

4. The qualificative processional double predicate: He Mas out hunting.

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Lecture IV Secondary Parts of the Sentence

1. The problem of parts of the sentence.

2. The object and its classification.

3. The attribute and its classification.

4. The adverbial modifier and its classification.

All parts of the sentence as well as the sentence itself are the products of the usage of units of language in the process of speech. The study of parts of the sentence is one of the most important questions in the whole theory of the sentence. Even.- part of the sentence occupies quite a peculiar place in the actualization of the thought expressed in a sentence. This means that every part of the sentence is in specific relations to predication. Parts of the sentence either enter the constructive centre of the sentence in which predication is expressed and then they are principal parts of the sentence or they are adjoined to the centre but are not connected with expression of predication. In this case we deal with secondary parts of the sentence. Secondary parts may be adjoined to the constructive centre of a sentence as independent elements extending the sentence as a whole or they may be introduced into a sentence together with some other parts and then they do not occupy any independent place in the sentence. Secondary parts of the former type may be termed as independent secondary parts. To them we may refer objects and adverbial modifiers. Secondary parts of the latter type may be termed as dependent ones. To them we ma)- refer all the types of attributes. In accordance with the theory of parts of the sentence which was advances by Professor Smimitsky the place of a sentence in the whole system of the parts and its role in the formation of a sentence may be characterized by the following points:

1) by the content of relations existing between the parts of the sentence;

2) by the character of interrelations appearing between them. The content of relations between the parts of the sentence depends upon interaction of the lexical meaning of the words with the meaning or syntactical means used in a sentence. This content may be objective, processive, qualitative and situational. Thus, it is objected content that is characteristic to the object and it is qualitative content that is typical of an attribute whereas the adverbial modifier is characterized by a situational content.

The connections which exist between parts of the sentence are the following:

1. Predicative connections existing between the subject and the predicate.

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2. Attributive connections which do not form a sentence but certain combinations of an attribute and its head-word.

3. Completed connections which include words in a sentence as independent syntactical units. It concerns objects and adverbial modifiers. Thus, we may say that in a sentence we deal with three secondary parts: object, attribute, and adverbial modifier.

The Object

It is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence, expressed by a verb, an adjective, a noun. etc. and which denotes a thing to which the action is directed or which is a result of the action, or in reference to which the action is connected, or a property is manifested, or it denotes an action as an object of another action.

E.g. He painted a beautiful picture. I like to read fiction.

The object may be expressed by different parts of speech: a noun, a pronoun, a substantivized adjective, an infinitive, a gerund, etc. Very rarely it may be expressed by an adverb, e.g. We leave here tomorrow.

Objects are usually classified on the basis of three principles:

1) their structure;

2) their morphological composition;

3) the type of their relation to the action expressed by a predicative verb, Structurally objects may be either simple or complex. A simple object is expressed by a single word or a phrase. E.g. I saw him yesterday.

I've read a number of books. Complex objects are expressed by predicative constructions with verbals:

1. Objective with the Infinitive: I saw him run.

2. Objective with the Participle: I saw him running.

3. For-to Infinitive Construction: I waited for her to come.

4. The Gerundial Construction: I insist on your reading the book.

The morphological classification of the object provides division of objects into two classes: prepositional objects and non-prepositional objects.

The prepositional type of objects includes every type of the object of the pattern preposition -*- noun or pronoun, e.g. What do you think of him'1

A non-prepositional object is such an object which rs governed by the predicate verb directly, e.g. I invited them to the evening party.

Syntactically objects are classified into direct and indirect. This classification applies only to a non-prepositional object expressed by a noun, a pronoun or sometimes by a substantivized adjective. This classification

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has no reference to the objects expressed by an infinitive, a gerund or a phrase.

The direct object denotes a thing immediately affected by the action denoted by a predicate verb whereas the indirect object expresses a person towards whom the thing is moved, e.g. We sent them a present.

The indirect object is never used without a direct one. The indirect and direct objects may be distinguished by their relative place in a sentence. The indirect object always occupies the place between the predicate verb and a direct object whereas the direct object always follows the indirect object.

There is a type of objects called a cognate objects. The cognate object is either of the same root as a predicate verb or the notions denoted by the predicate verb and the cognate objects are always akin.

E.g. She danced a passionate dance. She lived a wonderful life.

Sometimes the cognate object is similar to the verb only in meaning, e.g. They fought a good battle.

The cognate object occupies a place intermediate between an object and an adverbial modifier, expressing rather adverbial than objective relations, e.g. He laughed a hearty laugh. - He laughed heartily.

The construction with a cognate object is more emphatic than with an adverbial modifier.

The Attribute

The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies such a part of the sentence that may be expressed by a noun, pronoun, a cardinal numeral and by any substantivized word and which characterizes the thing named by these words from the point of view of its property or quality. All attributes may be classified on the following principles:

1) according to their position in a sentence;

2) according to their meaning;

3) according to their relations to other words in a sentence;

4) according to their structure.

From the view point of their position in a sentence all the attributes may be either prepositive or postpositive.

A prepositive attribute precedes a word it modifies and may be expressed by an adjective (a red rose), a numeral (one book), a noun in the possessive case (father's book), a participle (lost hopes), a gerund (a walking stick). and by different types of pronouns (this copy-book).

A postpositive attribute follows its head-word and is expressed by an

adjective, e.g. The air clean and transparent, or stative (those alive), or by a prepositional phrase (the biography of Charles Dickens), by an infinitive (my desire to help him), by a participle (the book spoken of), by a gerund (the idea of going there was pleasant).

A postpositive attribute usually has a predicative force, this means that the sentence with a postpositive attribute may be transferred into a complex or a compound sentence.

E.g. The sky clear and blue seemed transparent.

The sky which was clear and blue seemed transparent.

Semantically attributes may express various shades of relations with their head-words. Accordingly attributes may be: qualitative (deep sea); quantitative (many books) and circumstantial (the house on the hill).

From the point of view of their relations with other words in a sentence attributes may be classified into subjective, objective and appositive. The subjective attribute is an attribute which is expressed by such a form of the word which in a sentence acquires the function of the subject (Peter's arrival - Peter has arrived).

The objective attribute is such an attribute which is expressed by a word that in a sentence may acquire the function of an object (on their dependence - we may depend on them).

The appositive attribute has the function of an apposition: Aunt Polly, Uncle Tom, Professor Anichkov. In connection with such combination as Aunt Polly and others there exist two different points of view. The first opinion is that the apposition is expressed by proper nouns, whereas common nouns are head-words. The second point of view is that the apposition is expressed by a common noun whereas the head-word is denoted by a proper noun and is stressed logically. This opinion is perhaps more preferable.

Structurally attributes may be simple and complex. A simple attribute is expressed either by a single word or by a phrase (I like red roses. I read the biography of Charles Dickens). A complex attribute is expressed by predicative constructions with verbals.

E.g. This is the book for you to read (For-to infinitive construction). The thought of your leaving us upsets me (prepositional gcrundial construction).

The Adverbial Modifier

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of a sentence which serves to modify such a part of the sentence that is expressed by a verb, a verbal noun, an adjective, an adverb and a non-finite form of the verb and which serves to characterize an action or property.

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Adverbial modifiers are classified from the point of view of their structure and meaning.

Structurally adverbial modifiers may be simple and complex. A simple adverbial modifier is expressed by a single word or a phrase, e.g. I went there to buy a book. A complex adverbial modifier is expressed by predicative constructions which may be:

a) For-to infinitive construction: I went there for him to talk with me.

b) Nominative absolute participial construction: The weather being fine, we went for a walk.

c) Prepositional absolute participial construction: He was walking along the street with his dog following him.

d) Nominative absolute construction: Lessons over, we went home. ...

ej Prepositional absolute construction in which the participle is omitted: She sat before the door with her eyes on the ground.

f) A gerundial construction: On his coming she smiled.

Semantically adverbial modifiers are divided into qualitative and situational. The qualitative adverbial modifiers are subdivided into adverbial modifiers of manner (he was slowly walking along the street), of comparison (she smiled as if in dream), of degree (he walked away very sadly).

The situational adverbial modifiers are subdivided into adverbial modifiers of time, frequency, place, cause or reason, purpose, condition, result, concession, attending circumstances, e.g. Now a new task is set before us. We have often been there.

Lecture V The Composite Sentence

1. The general characteristics of a composite sentence.

2. The question of the notion of the clause.

3. The compound sentence and its characteristics.

4. The complex sentence and its characteristics.

Composite sentences are classified into compound, complex, and mixed sentences.

The difference between a compound sentence and a complex sentence is not only in their relations of coordination and subordination but also in the fact what is coordinated and what is subordinated.

In compound sentences whole clauses are coordinated together with their predications: The rain felt softly, the house was quite.

In complex sentences a subordinate clause is mostly subordinated not to the whole principal clause but to this or that word in it which may be regarded as its head-word: / hiow that he is a kind person. The object subordinate clause here is subordinated only to the predicate verb not to the principal clause. The only exception is the subordinate clause which functions as the subject of a complex sentence. In this case the subordinate clause is subordinated to the whole principal clause, e.g. Whether he is in town or not is unknown.

In connection with the study of the composite sentence there arises the question about the nature of clauses constituting this or that composite sentence.

Thus, in connection with the compound sentence some linguists are of the opinion that the compound sentence consists of mere simple sentences, that is that clauses of the compound sentence should be identified with simple sentences.

In connection with the complex sentence some linguists consider that subordinate clauses may be identified with parts of the simple sentence. However some objections may be put forward in connection with these theories. Thus, the majority of compound sentences are established in the language system as definite units with definite structures. As to subordinate clauses we cannot identify them with the parts of the simple sentence though there is some similarity in the function and combinability of subordinate clauses and parts of the simple sentence which is just used as a certain critenon for the classification of subordinate clauses. However, there are the following points of difference between the subordinate clause and parts

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of the simple sentence:

1. In subordinate clauses predication is expressed grammatically, which is not characteristic for any part simple or complex of the simple sentence.

2. Very often it is not the clause itself but a conjunction that determines the function and combinability of these clauses.

E.g. He is a good student. He is a nice person and a good student. It is well known that he is a good student (subjunctive clause). He will cope with the task if he is a good student (adverbial clause of condition).

The conjunctions are changed and the functions are changed. A conjunction is often a definite marker of a clause which distinguishes such clauses from most English words having no markers.

In English there is often no correlation or correspondence between subordinate clauses and parts of a simple sentence. Thus, one of the most important parts of the simple sentence, the simple verbal predicate, hasn't got the corresponding type of a subordinate clause. On the contrary, some subordinate clauses have no counterparts among parts of the simple sentence.

E.g. I know that she is ill. I am afraid that she is ill.

If we compare these two sentences with a simple sentence we may see that the complex sentence I know that she is ill corresponds to the simple sentence / know that. Thus, the object subordinate clause that she is ill in this case corresponds to the direct object that in the simple sentence I know that. But if we take the second sentence / am afraid that she is ill we may see that there is no counterpart of the subordinate clause that she is ill among the parts of the simple sentence because the sentence 7 am afraid that is grammatically wrong.

The Compound Sentence

It consists of two or several coordinate clauses which are joined to form one syntactical whole both in meaning and in intonation. For when taken separately the coordinate clauses always use some part of their meaning and become different sentences.

On the one hand any clause within a compound sentence remains on the same level of independence as any other clause and has the cause of independent proposition in the terminology suggested by Curme.

On the other hand in the clauses coordinated within a compound sentence the first clause in order is structurally more independent and the clause which follows it is more dependent as it contains anaphoric pronoun which points to the previous clause or its parts. It also may be elliptical and in this

clause there may be different substitutors, e.g.

Christin bit her lip and her worried look increased (two independent clauses, her is a substitute instead of Christin, which shows dependence of the second sentence to the first).

They had every excuse for turning into the lane but they did not do it (it is an anaphoric pronoun substituting but they did not do it).

Besides the fact that the conjunction is usually incerted in the body of the second clause it also makes it grammatically connected with the preceding clause, e.g. The firing had quieted down and the larks were singing overhead in the pure sky (two coordinated clauses).

Coordination reflects the logical sequence of thoughts, i.e. the clauses follow each other in the same order as thoughts do whereas in subordination the position of the subordinate clause is always determined by structural considerations or by whatever word in the main clause the subordinate one referes to. The order in which the coordinated clauses follow each other cannot be changed without detriment to the meaning of the whole sentence. The logical relations between coordinated clauses are based on their mutual dependence.

Coordination comprises the following types of connections: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causal-consecutive connection. These relations are always understood from the context, i.e. the}' result from the meaning of both the joined sentences.

Grammatically these relations are expressed not only by special coordinating conjuctions or other connectives but also by the intonation, by the order in which the clauses follow each other, by anaphoric pronouns which refer back to what is expressed in the preceding clause and will necessarily serve in some degree as a sertain connective between the two clauses.

These relations may be also expressed by the grammatical forms and meanings of the predicates in both the clauses.

Whenever the clauses are joined by conjunctions the latter are used to support the existing relations. The clauses within a compound sentence may be joined by the following coordinativc connectives:

1. The copulative connection: and, both and, not only, but also, neither... nor. etc. Here conjunctive adverbs may be used; likewise, besides, thus, again, etc. or conjunctive particles: also, too, either, even.

2. Disjunctive connection: or, either... or, otherwise, else.

3. Adversative connection: conjunctions: but, while, whereas, not, that: conjunctive adverbs: however, yet, still: conjunctive particle: only.

4. The causal-consecutive: conjuctions: /o/; so, so ... that: conjunctive

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adverbs: therefore, hence, accordingly.

The parts of a compound sentence may also be joined asyndatically.

The absence of a formal connective or link does not change anything as other means and logical connection form a sufficiant tie between independent coordinative clauses. Therefore, asyndatically connected clauses are also not absolutely independent and in most respects do not differ from syndatically connected clauses, e.g. A sharp keen wind blew against us, a hard frost prevailed on shoe, and the cold was most severe (there are three independent clauses).

The Complex Sentence

It is a sentence containing at least one subordinate clause. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified though their meaning is not completely independent and is somehow connected with the meaning of a subordinate clause.

E.g. He will come because he needs your help. He will come if he needs your help.

Subordinate clauses are classified on the basis of two principles, i.e. their meaning and relations to the word of the principal clause they are attached to. The second principle deals with the syntactical functions of the subordinate clauses.

Some grammarians classify subordinate clauses not on the basis of their meaning and their syntactical functions but in accordance with their identity to some part of speech with similar combinability.

E.g. When he left this placets very important. I don't know when he left this place.

The combinability of the subject subordinate clause in the first sentence and the object subordinate clause in the second resembles the combinability of a noun or a pronoun.

E.g. This question is very important. I don't know this question.

So some grammarians call such sentences noun clauses. But in syntax

t|-\^ ^nrr,o1 ati г>р л т ч f-Vt fV\<=» •nqt-tc f>"^T 'ч1 mr\1 A cr»Titopr«£> ic тлг.тГ^гп V\1 & trs tVirv

til W 4,V>li»-J.H4V_>i.l V * 1 til ШЧ, LJ dl LO \J Ж »Д .^iiilL'iW Л Ч, i-iLb iik- W О plV.l*.Jlt*iJi4, LvJ t i, 1 4,

correlation with the parts of speech. Therefore we shall take into consideration their syntactical relations and the functions of subordinate clauses and classify them into groups parallel to the parts of the simple sentence.

According!} there are the folllowing types of the subordinate clauses:

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1. Subject clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, whether, if;

b) conjunctive pronouns: who. what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how. whv. E.g.: What I need is a good car.

2. Predicative clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, whether, if, as. as if:

b) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. E.g.: That is why he left this place.

3. Object clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, if, whether, lest;

b) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how. whv. E.g.: I don't know why I hate the man so much.

4. Attributive clauses introduced by:

a) relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that, as;

b) relative adverbs: where, when;

E.g.: It is just the hour when the child sleeps. 5 Adverbial clauses:

a) of time introduced by conjunctions: when. as. after, till, until, directly, as soon as, hardlv (scarcelv) ... when, no sooner ... than, while, since, as long as.

E.g.: He recalled the occurence before he feel asleep.

b) of place introduced by: where, wherever, whence, whither. E.g.: Ion stood where she had left him.

c) of cause introduced by: because, since, as, for the reason that, on the ground that, seeving that, considering that. E.g.: As it is already late, you had better go.

d) of purpose introduced by: that, in order that, so that, lest. E.g.: Come nearer that I might hear you better.

e) of result introduced by: so that, so ... that. E.g.: He was so intent upon his reflections that he did not sec me.

f) of comparison or manner introduced by: as (with as, so in the principal clause), as if, as though, than, the more ... the more, the less ... the less.

E.g.: The wind had dropped and it was as lovely a morning as one could desire.

g) of concession introduced by: though, although, as, even if. even though, however, whoever, whatever, whichever.

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E.g.: Although you are young you make good progress in life, h) of condition introduced by: if, unless, suppose, supposing, provided. on condition.

E.g.: If I knew him better I should recomend him. Subordinate clauses are connected with their principal clauses or with one another by conjunctions, conjunctive and relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs or asyndatically and then they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma or a dash. The grammarian Curme points out that the first part of the sentence is pronounced with a rising intonation which also accounts for the usage of a comma.

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Библиография

1. Воронцова Г.Н. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М., 1960.

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Contents

Foreword....... .......................................................................................... ...4

Problems in Theoretical Grammar Dealt with in the

Present Course ...........................................................................................5

Parti

Morphology ............................................................................................. 12

Basic Units of Language and Speech ...................................................... 12

The Verb .................................................................................................. 21

The Categories of the Finite Forms of the Verb ......................................31

The Category of Mood ............................................................................45