11 Developing an argument 1

• Words meaning and, but and so

We can use longer words and phrases with the same meaning to link both across sentences and within more complex sentences.

and: In addition, Besides, Moreover, Furthermore

but: However, Nevertheless, On the other hand

so: Therefore, Consequently As a result

These words and phrases are typical of formal speech (for example presentations) and writing.

They usually come at the start of a sentence and have a comma afterwards, but can come after a comma in the middle of a sentence.

Supplier A is cheaper, and their delivery times are good. However, supplier B has better quality

products and they have a good reputation in the market.

This new process produces less waste, and as a result it's much better for the environment.

Our stocks are moving in a downwards spiral, therefore the Fed must cut interest rates to boost our confidence. That, at least, is the theory among investors this week. (Forbes.com website)

• Examples: for example, for instance, such as

We can use for example or for instance. Note the possible positions.

Our costs have gone up. For example, the cost of steel has nearly doubled.

Our costs have gone up. The cost of steel, for example, has nearly doubled.

We use such as in the middle of a sentence to give examples. It is the same as 'like'. Such as is followed by a noun phrase, not a whole clause.

Some delays, such as strikes or bad weather, are beyond our control.

Some delays are beyond our control, such as strikes or bad weather.

• Additional/real information: in fact, actually

We use In fact, Actually or As a matter of fact to add a piece of information to what we just said. The second piece of information gives more details.

We have plenty in stock. In fact/As a matter of fact, we could deliver tomorrow.

We also use these words to emphasise what the real situation is. This is surprising or different to what people imagine.

/ thought we had some in stock, but in fact/actually we don't.

• Sequence: first of all, as well as this, finally

We can use Firstly, First of all to begin a series of points in a formal argument. For other numbered points we say Second, Secondly, etc.

To add a point without numbering we can say As well as this, Besides this or In addition.

At the end we can say Finally.

Why choose the Czech Republic? Well, first of all, it has lower labour costs than other neighbouring countries, and secondly, it has a stable currency. As well as this, it has a trained workforce with good labour relations, and finally, it has a strong local market

To finish one point we can say Overall or Taking everything into consideration.

Overall, a record 67% of the adult population is employed or looking for work, mainly because female participation in the labor force has jumped over the last two decades. {BusinessWeek website)

To finish a formal speech we can say In conclusion.

In conclusion, I'd just like to thank you all very much for coming, and I look forward to seeing

you again at our next meeting on 31 September.

• Generalising: in general, on the whole

There are many words and phrases we can use to talk generally: In general, On the whole, As a rule, Typically, All in all, Basically, Overall, Broadly speaking.

Organisations typically have five 'customer' relationships: customers, business partners, suppliers, employees, and shareholders. (e-business advisor website)

If we want to make a balanced argument we often use one of these phrases followed by a contrasting idea with a word like but.

In general the Japanese economy has not been very dynamic over recent years. However,

some technology and telecom companies are growing very fast.

On the whole, I think you're right, although i disagree with you about the level of risk.

• Summarising: so, to sum up, in summary

We can use So, In short, To put it simply. To sum up and In summary to summarise.

So, to sum up the main points of my presentation so far, we are a truly international company offering a full range of services to corporate and private clients in the areas of finance, banking and insurance.

To put it simply, food processors will lose competitiveness as a direct result ofEU membership. (Business Central Europe website)

• Either... or..., instead of, except for

We use either to begin a list of possibilities. We do not begin with or. The other possibilities are introduced with or.

Either we could cancel the product launch, or postpone it.)

But in speech we can begin with or to complete the other person's idea.

A: 'We could just cancel the launch.'

B: 'Or perhaps postpone it'

We use instead (of) to mean 'in the place of something else'. At the end of a sentence, instead is used without of.

Can we have the meeting on Friday instead of Thursday?

Thursday is no good? OK, can we have it on Friday instead?

We use except, except for or apart from to mean 'not including'. / have contacted everyone except (for) Margaret

Practice

Exercise 1

Underline the correct words.

1. If registered mail is too slow, we could use a courier instead/instead of.

2. The fall in share prices has made investors nervous. On the other side/hand, it's an excellent buying opportunity if you're prepared to take a risk.

3. As a rule/Therefore I don't normally have a big lunch, but I'll come with you to the restaurant today.

4. All commodity prices rose last week, also/except gold.

5. We can either/or wait for a train, or go by taxi.

6. I know Madrid very well. As a matter of fact/On the whole, I worked there for a short time many years ago.

7. As a matter of fact/On the whole stocks are riskier than bonds, but stocks can give a better return in the long term.

8. It's convenient for me to come to work by car. On the other hand/Besides, the train would probably be quicker.

9. It's convenient for me to come to work by car. On the other hand/Besides, the company pays for the parking.

10. Investment in areas for example/such as biotechnology can be risky.

11. Investment in some areas, for example/such as biotechnology, can be risky.

12. Can we send an email except for/instead of a fax?

Exercise 2

Complete each sentence with a word or phrase from the list below.

actually as well as this either except instead such as therefore nevertheless so in general

1. People think it's expensive, but .actually _Over the long term it isn't.

2. The restaurant is open every day Monday.

3. She's out of the country and unable to attend the meeting.

4. I was going on Tuesday, but now I'm going on Monday

5……………………I think the meeting went very well, although we didn't manage to agree on the composition of the new team.

6. Some areas,………………….recruitment, are outsourced to other companies.

7. I'm sorry…………………………..you accept this price, or we can't do business.

8. It's reliable, safe and easy to use , it's excellent value for money.

9. It's reliable, safe and easy to use , the maintenance costs can be quite high.

10 ……………………….., in short, it's reliable, safe and easy to use.

Exercise 3

Put four commas in this short paragraph.

In general taking an MBA is a good idea for an ambitious young professional however you do have to make some sacrifices. You miss out on two years' valuable work experience for example and it can be very expensive

Exercise 4

Read this article about transport policy in city centres. Complete the article by choosing the correct alternative from А, В, С or D below.

_{Want to enter the city?}

_{Sorry, you’ll have to pay.}

Traffic congestion in city centres is a big problem for both businesses and residents. Policy makers are being forced to think of solutions based on public transport, road pricing and restricted use of one kind or another (1) unlimited access for cars at all times. What are the reasons for this? (2) , cars cause noise and pollution in areas where people walk, shop or go sightseeing, and (3) this they are of course quite dangerous. (4) , cars cause traffic jams and (5) many hours of work time are lost. (6) , people need incentives before they change their habits and alternatives to cars are often not available or of poor quality. The first thing is that public transport must become more reliable and more comfortable. (7) bicycle use should be encouraged. (8) by having more cycle lanes. Some large cities, (9) Amsterdam, are already organised in this way. But the most radical measure is road pricing. Asking motorists to pay to enter city centres is controversial, but is an increasingly common solution. So, (10) we can see that imaginative and sometimes unpopular measures will be needed to make the city centre a more pleasant place to work and live.

1. A but	B except for	C instead of	D such as
2. A As well	B First of all	C In fact	D As a result
3. A As well as	B Also	C For example	D Except
4. A For example	B However	C And	D Secondly
5. A either	B both	C as a result	D instead of
6. A However	B Therefore	C So	D In conclusion
7. A To sum up	B In addition	C Actually	D For example
8. A to sum up	B in addition	C actually	D for example
9. A such as	B as well as	C instead of	D except
10. A thirdly	B in conclusion	C instead	D also

Revision

Exercise 5

Complete this speech made by the leader of a Korean trade delegation at the end of a trip to Wales with the words and phrases from the list below.

first of all in conclusion in addition therefore instead of as a rule however in fact

'Could (just say a few words? Thank you. Well, (1) first of all.'.' I'd like to thank everyone here at GNK for organising today's visit. We have enjoyed meeting all the staff, seeing your new products and

looking round your factory. (2) , I would like to thank the local Chamber of Commerce who made the whole trip possible. As you know, we see the European market as very important for our company. (3). , it is central to our future plans. (4)………….., I'm sure that we can look forward to even closer cooperation between our two companies in the future.

(5)………………………………I think it's better to keep the ceremonies short on occasions like this,

(6) , I would just like to take this opportunity to leave you with something to remember our visit, and so I have great pleasure in presenting this book with photographs of Korea to your director, Chris Armstrong. (7) , I hope that we may soon have the pleasure of welcoming some of you to our county in the future. Perhaps the next time we meet it will be in Seoul (8) Cardiff! Once again, thank you all very much.'

12 Inversion

• Subject-verb inversion. We sometimes put a verb or verb phrase in front of the subject after adverbs of place (e.g. on, in, here, there, outside, opposite) and adverbs of time (e.g. next, then, first, now, finally). We can use a form of be or verbs of place and movement (e.g. stand, sit, lie, come, go, climb, run, sail, fly) before the subject. We often use this pattern to form a link with the information in the previous sentence, and it is common in formal English:

place adverbs + be or verbs of place/movement time adverbs + be or verbs of place/movement

Here lies the body of our late lamented sovereign. On one wail there was a beautiful rambling rose. Opposite stood an ancient oak tree over a charming wishing well. For the first hour the teams seemed evenly matched. Then came the turning point in the game as Ed scored. That was the final instalment. Next is the news.

We don't use inversion if the subject of the clause is a pronoun:

Here comes the bus. • Here it comes.

We can also use inversion in as and than clauses in formal English:

Mr Slater is expecting a pay rise, as are several other salesmen in the team.

I'm afraid her proposals are no more feasible than are those James presented.

We also use inversion in certain fixed expressions, often with subjunctives:

So be it. Long live the King!

• Subject-auxiliary inversion. We sometimes put an auxiliary (do, have, should, can, etc.) before the subject in statements; the rest of the verb phrase follows the subject. We use this pattern of inversion for emphasis in the following cases:

after adverbs with 'restrictive'/ negative meaning (e.g. hardly, scarcely, rarely, little, never) only + time expression or prepositional phrase (in) no way, at no time, under no circumstances, on no account not + only/time expression/ person or thing no sooner ... than clauses beginning with neither or nor clauses beginning with may which describe a strong wish after fronted comparisons, also, such and so

Little did we realise the true extent of his involvement. Never have I seen such a disturbing sight. Hardly had I arrived when Suzy collared me. Only later did he manage to get permission. Only with a great deal of effort was he able to escape. No way am I going to wear that! (informal) Under no circumstances can refunds be given. Not only is he late, he hasn't even brought a present. Not since the sixties has a pop group won such acclaim. Not a single stone was left unturned in the search. No sooner had we set out than the shies opened. They have no intention of paying and neither have we. We couldn't face the customers and nor could the boss. May he live to regret this decision! The captain is refusing to play under these conditions and so is the rest of the team

Expressions with no, not, etc. not listed above (e.g. no doubt) cannot be inverted.

No doubt he will give us a key.

We do not invert the subject and auxiliary after only if there is no time expression or

prepositional phrase immediately after it:

Only members can park there.

Only on Sundays can members park there.

Practice

Exercise 1

Complete each sentence by using the phrases below

Rarely have No sooner had Under no circumstances are

Not only did Under no circumstances will as did

Were you Hardly had Little did Rarely have

a) ..Hardly had. we arrived at the hotel, when there was a power cut.

b) members of staff to accept gratuities from

clients.

c) Detective Dawson realise what she was to

discover!

d) to pay the full amount now, there would be a

ten per cent discount.

e) I supposed, ……………… most people, that I would be

retiring at 60.

6. the doctors seen a more difficult case.

7. Jean win first prize, but she was also offered a

promotion.

h) late arrivals be admitted to the theatre before

the interval. i) one missing child been found, than another

three disappeared, j) so many employees taken sick leave at the same time.

Exercise 2

Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given.

a) It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting. find

Not until the office phoned me did I find out about the meeting.

b) The facts were not all made public at the time. later

Only all made public.

c) The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff. response

Such to our appeal that we had to

take on more staff.

d) Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder. but

Not only also injured his shoulder.

e) The police didn't suspect at all that the judge was the murderer. did

Little as being the murderer.

f) The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way. held

In responsible for the accident.

g) If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election. raise

Were interest rates, they would

lose the election.

h) As soon as I got home, I realised I'd left my bag in the shops.

had

No sooner I realised I'd left my

bag in the shops.

i) It was only when I asked a passer-by that I realised where I was.

did

Not until where I was.

j) The minister was interrupted just after starting his speech.

when

Hardly ……………………………………………………………..he was interrupted.

Exercise 3

Decide which sentences are inappropriate in the contexts given.

a) Guest to host: 'So nice was that pudding, that I would like to have some

more.’ inappropriate.

b) Witness to court: 'No sooner had I turned out the light, than I heard a noise outside.’

……………………………………….

c) News reader: 'Such was the force of the earthquake, that whole villages have

been devastated.'

d) Parent to child: 'Should you fancy a pizza, let's order one now.'……………………..

e)Friend to friend: 'Never before have I seen this film.' …………………………………..

5. Politician to audience: 'Seldom has the country faced a greater threat.'

g) Celebrity to interviewer: 'Were I to have the time, I'd go climbing more

often.'

h) Victim to police officer: 'Scarcely had we been introduced when he punched

me for no reason.'

i) Printed notice: 'Under no circumstances is this control panel to be left

unattended.'

j) Colleague to colleague: 'Should you change your mind, just let me know.’'

……………………………………………………..

Exercise 4

Complete each sentence with a suitable phrase containing the verb in brackets in an appropriate form.

1. Should you need (need) anything, could you let me know?

2. Were the plane (take off), everyone in it would

have been killed.

c) Had (study) harder, I would probably have

passed all my exams.

4. Should (be) in the neighbourhood, drop in.

5. Had (go) to the doctor immediately, your

daughter would not be so ill.

f) Never before (spend) so much money on her

daughter's birthday.

g) Should (feel) hungry, just call room service, and

order a meal.

h) Were (offer) her the job, we couldn't be sure

that she would accept. i) Had (take) the necessary measures, this political

crisis could have been avoided. j) Scarcely (get) home when the police called us with news of Geoffrey

Exercise 5

Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.

1. Jim promised that he would never/never would he tell anyone else.

2. Not until it was too late I remembered/did I remember to call Susan.

3. Hardly had we settled down in our seats than/when the lights went out.

4. Only after checking three times / was/was I certain of the answer.

5. At no time / was aware/was I aware of anything out of the ordinary.

6. Only Catherine and Sally passed/did they pass the final examination.

7. Only when Pete has arrived/has Pete arrived can we begin the programme. h) No sooner had it stopped raining than/when the sun came out.

Exercise 6

Complete the text by using the words and phrases given below

Little such as not only under no circumstances had seldom scarcely along

no sooner

Well, ladies and gentlemen, we've done it again - another election victory. The last four years of office has been a wonderful time for the party, a tale of

adversity overcome. (1) ..No sooner. had we come to office than the

Stock Market crashed. But we survived that scare, and we came out of it stronger for the experience. The opposition claimed we were faltering.

(2) have I heard such hypocrisy from a party which

continued to squabble internally for the next four years. Then

(3) came a fellow called David Rew, with his new

breakaway Democratic party - but he didn't have much success in the opinion

polls! (4) did he claim he'd become Prime Minister

within three years, he also reckoned that this party was now unpopular with

younger voters. (5) did he realise that it would be

the young voters who gave us an overwhelming vote of confidence in

yesterday's election. (6) had the first votes rolled in

when it was obvious that we would be re-elected with a huge majority.

(7) was the extent of our victory that the New

Democrats obtained a meagre five seats. (8) they

known they would perform so poorly, I don't think they would have been quite so scathing in their criticism of our economic policy. But rest assured, ladies and

gentlemen, (9) will we rest on our laurels. There is

no room for complacency in this government. And I am confident,

(10) I'm sure are most of you, that the next four

years will be a resounding success. Thank you.

Exercise 7

Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given.

a) Please never ever interrupt me when I'm in a meeting. am

On no account .am I (ever) to be interrupted. when I'm in a meeting.

b) Nobody from this school has ever written a better composition. anyone

Never written a better composition.

c) Such was the demand for tickets that people queued day and night. great

The demand for tickets that people

queued day and night.

d) The money is not to be paid under any circumstances. no

Under to be paid.

e) Three days passed before we arrived at the first oasis. had

Not until at the first oasis.

f) Little did Brenda know what she was letting herself in for. no

Brenda what she was letting herself in for.

g) It was only when I stopped that I realised something was wrong. did

Only that something was wrong.

h) The accused never expressed regret for what he had done.

time

At regret for what he had done.

i) Exhaustion prevented any of the runners from finishing the race.

were

So of them finished the race.

j) It's not common for there to be so much rain in March.

see

Seldom…………………..……………………… so much rain in March

Exercise 8

Complete the sentences using the words in bold. Use two to five words.

1 We can get into the house only if you have a key.

can Only if ...you have a key can... we get into the house.

2 If the weather gets any colder, we'll turn on the heating.

get Should , we'll turn on the heating

3 He had just entered when the telephone rang.

sooner No the telephone rang

4 He visits us so rarely that I can hardly remember what he looks like.

visit So that I can hardly remember what he looks like

5 Mark works so hard that I'm sure he'll be promoted soon.

does So that I'm sure he'll be promoted soon

6 If you had been there, you would have enjoyed it.

been Had would have enjoyed il

7 He spoke to me only after I spoke to him.

speak Only after I spoke to him to me

8 Janet won't get on a plane under any circumstances.

will Under on a plane

9 I realised who she was only after a few minutes.

realise Only after a few minutes she was

10 She didn't know that her wish would come true.

did Little her wish would come true.

11 He didn't laugh once all evening.

did Not all evening,

12 They scarcely talk to each other any more.

do Scarcely each other any more.

13 This restaurant rarely gets so crowded.

get Seldom……………………………………………………………………………….so crowded.

14 If he had left earlier, he would have been on time.

he Had have been on time.

15 She was so happy that she decided to celebrate.

she So she decided to celebrate.

16 This is the only way that we can be sure we are right.

in Only be sure that we are right.

17 If he notices anything, we'll be in trouble.

notice Should , we'll be in trouble.

18 Sarah forgot to take her purse and her handbag too.

did Sarah didn't remember to take her purse; to take her handbag.

19 He was so scared that he could hardly breathe.

fear Such he could hardly breathe.

20 She performed so well that she won an Oscar.

perform So that she won an Oscar.

21 Thailand is warmer and cheaper than England.

only Not than England, it's cheaper too.

22 If I were you, I would try calling her again.

you Were , calling her again.

23 The weather hasn't been this warm since last summer.

has Not since last summer this warm.

24 You must not miss the plane on any account.

no On the plane.

25 She had just left when the boss asked to see her.

sooner No the boss asked to see her.

26 You will only understand him if you speak French.

will Only you understand him.

27 If you don't apologise, he will never forgive you.

not Should ……, he will never forgive you.

Exercise 9

Rewrite the sentences using "so" or "such" at the beginning of the sentence.

1. The weather was so bad that they stayed at home. So ...bad was the weather that they stayed at home...

2. The house was so big that he almost got lost. So

3. He was so surprised to see her he could hardly speak. Such

4. She was so bored by the play that she fell asleep. So

5. He was so angry that he shouted at everyone. Such

Exercise 10

Fill in "so", "neither/nor" and the appropriate verb.

1. "I'd like to go to Belgium one day." "...So would I. ... I've never been there."

2. "I really enjoyed that film last night."

" It's one of the best I've ever seen."

3 "I've used up all my money."

" My purse is empty."

4. "We didn't like the food they served yesterday." "It was overcooked."

5. "I feel like going to the beach today." " Let's go!"

6. "I can't remember how to make souffle."

" Let's look in the recipe book."

7 "I don't believe he's telling the truth."

' The facts don't add up."

Revision

Exercise 11