The first permanent white settlers (поселенцы) came to New York from Holland in 1626. These Dutch settlers bought all of Manhattan Island (остров) from the Indians for the equivalent of twenty-five dollars, while today some of this land costs a million dollars an acre. This island is the heart of the city.

It is on Manhattan Island that most of the skyscrapers are located. This island is connected by six long bridges, as well as by tunnels and ferries (паром), with the other four districts that constitute New York City.

New York is the largest city in the United States. Today there are more people living in the New York City than in Australia, Peru or Sweden.

For transportation New York depends (зависеть) mainly on buses, the subway, taxis and ferries. The buses are slow because of the crowded streets, whereas the subway train can go as fast as railroad trains, sometimes stopping only at the most important stations. We may go all day by the subway for the same fare, if we only change trains but do not go out of the stations.

New York moves vertically as well as horizontally, taking its people by elevator to their offices on the fortieth, sixtieth, and eightieth floor.

New York is the richest and the poorest, the most modem and the most old-fashioned (старомодный) of cities. It is the home of expensive hotels and cheap boarding houses, the home of symphonies and popular jazz, of cathedrals (собор) and night clubs; the home of the famous Metropolitan Opera and the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the home of most of the largest publishing houses (издательство) of the United States and the biggest newspapers. On the Fifth Avenue there are many expensive stores of international feme, but around the comer one may find little shops where imitation diamonds and cheap souvenirs are sold.

2. Complete the sentences below choosing the variant corresponding to the contents of the text

1. The first permanent white settlers of New York were:

1. from France;

2. from England;

3. from Holland.

2. The Manhattan Island is:

1. In the centre of New York;

2. in the suburbs (пригород) of New York;

3. Very far from New York.

3. The Island is connected with other parts of New York:

1. by one long bridge;

2. by six long bridges;

3. by six short bridges.

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4. The largest city in the USA is:

1. Washington;

2. Chicago;

3. New York.

5. The subway trains move:

1. as fast as railroad trains;

2. slower than railroad trains;

3. faster than railroad trains.

2. Read the text to find answers to the given questions.

TEXT 6C ' LONDON

1. What are the main parts of London?

Thousands of visitors come to Great Britain every ,y.e.aL_ Some come on business, others'simply as tourists, but none misses the opportunity to see the capital of Cireat Britain.

London is grand and attractive. It is certainly very old and full of historic associations. It has strong links with the past. Its old customs and traditions have survived and even the types of people. They are a strange mixture of past and present, of old-fashioned and very modem.

London consists of many parts and they are all very different from each other. There is the West End and the East End, Westminster and the City. The City is not only the centre of business, it is the birthplace of London.

2. What did the Romans do for the development of London?

In 43 A.D. the Romans conquered Britain and for 400 years it remained a Roman province. The Romans built long straight roads along which the Roman soldiers marched. Many of them met at the point where London bridge now stands. Hie Romans made London, which they called Londinium, a large and rich city with good streets, beautiful palaces, shops and villas. Trade was growing. A lot of goods-skins, copper and iron ore, silver and gold were sent to Rome. And many strong blue-eyed boys were sent to Rome, too, to be sold as slaves.

In the fifth century the Romans left Britain, but other invaders came to the British shores. They almost ruined the city and it remained in this poor state for almost 400 years.

Only in the 9th century the Saxon kings began to rebuild the city. They started die building of Westminster Abbey.

i How did the Normans influence Britain’s civilization?

In 1066 came William the Duke of Normandy or William the Conqueror who settled in London which became the capital of Norman

3ritain. . refjtjjl

For 500 years the Nomians were masters of Britain. They brought with

hem Latin and French civilization, the laws and the organization of the

land. Many Latin and French words penetrated into the Old English

(Germanic) language. They did their best to make the city beautiful. The

Westminster Abbey was finished and William was the first king to be

crowned there. Since then, all English kings have been crowned in the

Abbey. At that time the Tower of London was built on the Thames and it

stands there still unchanged. Commerce and trade grew very quickly, but

the population grew even faster. London became a busy, rich and crowded

city. The old city looked very picturesque with its tall houses of wood and

plaster and its narrow streets.

3. What were the consequences (последствия) of two great tragedies that London suffered?

But then London suffered two awful tragedies, at first - the Great Plague and then the Great Fire. In a few months nearly 100,000 people, that is 1/5 of the population died because of the Plague. Sorrow and sadness sat upon every Londoner. And only winter and its cold saved the city and the people.

The Great Fire happened through carelessness of a young baker who left a small bundle of wood near a very hot oven. In a few hours all the houses made of wood were burning like paper. This fire destroyed 3000 houses and at least 97 churches.

Fortunately the wind soon stopped and then heavy rain fell. Thus London was saved.

4. What is the City notable for?

Bit by bit London was being reconstructed until it has become the city which is now one of the most beautiful and attractive places of the world.

The oldest part of it is the City which is the business and financial centre of London. During the day it is full of people, but at the end of the day, businessmen, clerks and secretaries go home and it becomes silent and almost empty.

Besides the City there are many other attractions such as Trafalgar Square with the Nelson column in the centre, the Houses of Parliament with

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the famous Big Ben, a lot of beautiful parks and gardens among which is Hyde Park well known all over the world. There is a lot more to tell about London. But if you have a chance better visit it and see everything yourself.

4. a) One of the greatest problems of all modern cities is the environment pollution. Read the text and tell which of the problems mentioned in the text are typical for the city you live in.

'■£: TEXT 6D

AIR POLLUTION AND SMOG ARE THE PROBLEMS |f| OF MODERN CITIES

The word smog comes from smoke and fog. Smog is a sort of fog with other substances mixed in. Smog has been here a long time. Billions of years ago, volcanoes sent millions of tons of ash and smoke into the air. Winds whipped up dust clouds. Animal and vegetable matter decayed, adding polluting gases.

When people came along, they began to produce their own kind of air pollution. They discovered fire. In the Middle Ages, people in cities such as London used soft coal to heat their homes. The smoke from these fires, combined with moisture in the air, produced dense layers of smog. The smog would blanket the city for days, particularly in winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air within a dome-like shape. This traps the smog and holds it over the city.

Smog, and the chemicals and other substances in it, can be harmful, even deadly. Smog blurs vision. It irritates the eyes, the throat, and the lungs. Eyes water, throats get sore, people cough. Smog can make people Iir%id it can make sick people sicker. Air pollution has been linked to eczema, asthma, emphysema, cardiovascular difficulties, and lung and stomach cancer. It also has a harmful effect on the environment. Food crops and animals suffer. Paint may peel from houses. It is obvious that we must do everything possible to reduce man-made atmospheric pollutants and smog.

Smog, along with smoke, is the most visible evidence of atmospheric pollution. But some atmospheric pollution is not visible and may not become visible until it is mixed with moisture. Lead compounds from leaded gasoline, hydrocarbons (unbumed gasoline), carbon monoxide, and other gases may pollute the air without being seen. All air is polluted to some extent. That is, all air carries some polluting substances. Much of it is natural: smoke and ash from volcanoes, dust stirred up by the wind, compounds given off by growing vegetation, gases given off by rotting animal and vegetable matter, salt particles from the oceans, and so on.

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Man adds to these pollutants by burning coal, oil, gas, gasoline, and many other things.

Before we get to the automobile, however, let us review what we know about combustion. Most fuels, such as coal, gasoline, and wood, contain hydrogen and carbon in various chemical combinations. During combustion, oxygen unites with the hydrogen and carbon to form water (H₂0), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2).

In addition, many fuels contain sulfiir; this bums to produce sulfur oxides. Also, in the heat of combustion, some of the nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides (NO*). Some of the fuel may not bum completely, so that smoke and ash are formed. Smoke is simply particles of unbumed fuel and soot_s called particulates, mixed with air.

Altogether, it is estimated that 200 million tons of man-made pollutants enter the air every year in the United States alone. This is about a ton for every man, woman, and child in the country!

This man-made pollution is what clean-air laws are aimed at.'

Consider Los Angeles, a large city set in a basin, with about 7,000,000 inhabitants. It is surrounded on three sides by mountains, and on the fourth by the Pacific Ocean. When the wind blows out over the ocean, it sweeps away pollutants. But at other times, the air is stagnant. Smoke and other pollutants from industry and automobiles do not blow away. They just build up into a thick, smelly, foggy layer of smog. The location of Los Angeles, plus all the people and industry there, make it one of the biggest “smog centers*’ in the country. And it is Los Angeles which has led in measures to reduce smog.

Los Angeles has banned unrestricted burning, for example, burning trash. Incinerators without pollution controls were outlawed. Industry was forced to change combustion processes and add controls to reduce pollutants coming from their chimneys. Laws were passed that required the addition of emission controls on automobiles. All these measures have significantly reduced atmospheric pollution in the Los Angeles area.

If not controlled, the automobile can give off pollutants from four places. Pollutants can come from the fuel tank, the carburetor, the crank­case, and the tail pipe. Pollutants from the fuel tank and carburetor consist of gasoline vapors. Pollutants from the crankcase consist of partly burned air-fiiel mixture that has blown by the piston rings. Pollutants from the tail pipe consist of partly burned gasoline (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO*), and - if there is sulfur in the gasoline - sulfur oxides (SO*).

2. Write the summary of the text in Russian.

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q\ Read three given lists of the text and find tine which correspond* to the contents best.

1. In this chapter we consider the atmospheric pollution^ the formation of smog, and the automobile’s role in air pollution.

2. In this chapter we look at burning coal, oil, gas, gasoline as main pollutants of the atmosphere.

3. In this chapter we look at man-made pollutants as the main factors of atmospheric pollution.

WAITING PRACTICE

a) In the USA and Great Britain there are days which are public holidays In British English they are known as bank holidays. Below is a partial

list of holidays for each country.

The USA

New Year’s Day (Jan. 1) Lincoln’s Birthday. (Feb. 12) Washington’s Birthday (the 3rd Monday in February) Independence Day (July, 4) Labour Day (first Monday in

September)

Great Britain

Easter

Spring (Bank) Holiday - last Monday in May ^ ^

August Bank Holiday (Late Summer Holiday) - last Monday in August Christmas (December, 25)

Thanksgiving Day (fourth Thursday Boxing Day (the first day after in November) Christmas)

Christmas (December, 25)

b) Read the season greeting postcard you’ve received from a friend.

MERRY CHRISTSUS!

Our family wishes you and your family the very best Christmas and a prosperous year in 1999.

Helen

2. Write a postcard to your friend Peter in Great Britain and wish him happy holidays for either Christmas or Easter.

You may find the following expressions useful:

Happy New Year. Best wishes of the season.

Good luck and good health in the new year.

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