8. Класифікація приголосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English consonants)

The system of the English consonants was thoroughly investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, V.Shcherba and others. The articulatory classification of the English consonants can be described according to the following criteria:

1) active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction;

2) type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production.

1. According to the active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction we distinguish: labial consonants (bilabial – p, b, m, w and labio-dental – f, v); lingual consonants (forelingual-interdental – ð, θ; forelingual-alveolar – t, d, n, l; forelingual-post alveolar – r; forelingual-palato-alveolar – ∫, ʒ, t∫, d ʒ; medio-lingual-palatal – j; back lingual-velar – k, g, ŋ; pharyngeal-glotal – h.

9. Асиміляція як універсальна характерна ознака розмовної мови. Типи асиміляції (Assimilation as a universal feature of spoken language. Types of assimilation)

Assimilation is usually the result of different types of sound adaptations within “consonant + consonant” or “vowel + vowel”. During assimilation a given consonant (the assimilating consonant) takes on the characteristics of a neighbouring consonant (the conditioning consonant). Assimilation is a universal feature of spoken language. In English it occurs frequently, both within words and between words. There are several types of assimilation.

1. According to the degree the assimilating consonant takes on the characteristics of the neighbouring consonant, assimilation may he 1) partial (incomplete) or 2) total (complete). In the phrase ten bikes, the normal form in colloquial speech would be /tem baiks/, not /ten baiks/ which would sound somewhat ‘careful’. In this case, the assimilation has been partial: the /n/ has fallen under the influence of the following /b/ and has adopted its bilabiality, becoming /m/. It has not, however adopted its plosiveness. The phrase /teb baiks/ would be likely if one had a severe cold! The assimilation is total in ten mice /tem mais/, where the /n/ is now identical with /m/.

2. A further classification is in terms of the direction in which the assimilation works. There are three possibilities:

2.1. Regressive (or anticipatory) assimilation: the sound changes due to the influence of the following sound, e.g. ten bikes. This is particularly common in English in alveolar consonants in word-final position. Another example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system – namely in the four variants of the negative suffix in- which occurs in all the cases except when the subsequent sound is a bilabial or a liquid (/l/ of /r/): indifferent, impossible, illogical, irregular.

In rapid native speaker speech, sequences of sibilants having the form /s/ or/z/+/j/ are particularly susceptible to this type of regressive assimilation: /s/+/j/ =/∫/, e.g. horseshoe, one’s shadow, his shirt /z/+/j/=/ʒ/, hosier.

With a stop consonant, a final /t/ or /d/ may assimilate to a following initial /p/, /k/, or /b/, /g/ respectively, i.e. the place of articulation changes but the voiced or voiceless quality of the segment remains constant: good boy - /b:/; good girl - /g :/; at peace - /p:/; pet kitten - /k:/.

A final nasal consonant, especially /n/, may also adjust the place of articulation according to that of a following conditioning consonant: He is in pain. It rains in May. /m/; They’re in Korea. Be on guard! /n/

Change in place of articulation or in voicing is the most common types of regressive assimilation in English.

There are, however, also some cases of regressive assimilation with a change in manner of articulation. These tend to occur in informal speech, e.g. Could you give me a call? Let me do that for you. /m:/

2.2. Progressive (perseverative) assimilation: the consonant changes because of he influence of the preceding consonant, for example, lunch score articulated with /s/ becoming /∫/ under the influence of /t∫/. But these assimilations are less common in English. They occur in some contractions, e.g. it’s, that’s.

2.3. Coalescent (reciprocal) assimilation is a type of reciprocal assimilation: the first consonant and the second consonant in a cluster fuse and mutually condition the creation of a third consonant with features from both original consonants. This assimilation occurs most frequently when final alveolar Cs /t/, /d/ are followed by initial palatal /j/. Then they become affricates /ʧ/, /dʒ/, and this assimilation is called affricatization. Final alveolar Cs /s/, /z/ before /j/ can become palatalized fricatives or sibilants /∫/ and /ʒ/ respectively (the assimilation is then called assibilation), e.g. t + j = /ʧ/ e.g. Is that your dog?, virtue, statue; d + j = /dʒ/ Would you mind moving? education, during; s + j = /∫/ issue, He is coming this year. z + j /ʒ/ Does your mother know that you are out?

The amount of assimilation that occurs in native speaker pronunciation will depend on the formality of the situation, the rate of speech, and the style of the speaker.