ВАРИАНТ 4

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

COMPUTER CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS IN 1970-th

Like all machines, a computer needs to be directed and controlled in order to perform a task successfully. Until such time as a program is prepared and stored in the computer's memory, the computer knows absolutely nothing, not even how to accept or reject data. Even the most sophisticated computer, no matter how capable it is, must be told what to do. Until the capabilities and the limitations of a computer are recognized, its usefulness cannot be thoroughly understood.

Computers can process information at extremely rapid rates. For example, modern computers can solve certain classes of arithmetic problems millions of times faster than a skilled mathematician. Speeds for performing decision-making operations are comparable to those for arithmetic operations, but input-output operations, however, involved mechanical motion and hence required more time. On a typical computer system, cards were read at an average speed of 1000 cards per minute and as many as 1000 lines could be printed at the same rate.

Computers may be programmed to calculate answers to whatever level of accuracy is specified by the programmer. In spite of newspaper headlines such as 'Computer Fails', these machines are very accurate and reliable especially when the number of operations they can perform every second is considered. Because they are man-made machines, they sometimes malfunction or break down and have to be repaired. However, in most instances when the computer fails, it is due to human error and is not the fault of the computer at all.

General-purpose computers can be programmed to solve various types of problems because of their flexibility. One of the most important reasons why computers are so widely used today is that almost every big problem can be solved by solving a number of little problems - one after another.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения.

1.The message to be translated by a computer must be transcribed on a suitable input medium.

2.We know of information devices having many uses in science and industry.

3.The microprocessor is known to form the heart of a microcomputer.

4.A personal computer is a computer putting a wide array of capabilities at the disposal of an individual.

109

Варианты контрольного задания 4

для студентов машиностроительных специальностей (МТИ)

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

WHAT IS MECHANICS?

Mechanics is the branch of physics and engineering which deals with the interrelations of force, matter and motion. It is divided into three parts: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies, and mechanics of fluids.

The mechanics of rigid bodies is subdivided into statics and dynamics, the former dealing with bodies at rest, the latter with bodies in motion. In this part of the study of mechanics, bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid. Actual structures and machines, however, are never absolutely rigid and deform under the loads to which they are subjected. But these deformations are usually small and do not appreciably affect the conditions of equilibrium or motion of the structure under consideration.

The mechanics of fluids is subdivided into the study of incompressible fluids and compressible fluids.

Mechanics can be also considered to be that branch of science which deals with the action of force. We know that: 1) A force may move the body from rest. When a body is pushed, the force used causes it to move. A bar magnet exerts a force of attraction on a piece of iron. The iron moves up to the magnet. 2) A force may change the motion of a body already moving. The brake of a motor-car exerts a force which slows up the car. 3) A force may fail to produce a motion if opposed by another force.

We should distinguish the difference between theoretical mechanics and applied mechanics. The former comprises exact laws and principles that have been mathematically deduced from certain fundamental facts, the latter consists of the application of these laws to the design of structures and machines.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.Mechanics is considered to be a basic subject in engineering education.

2.A rigid body is in equilibrium when the external forces acting on it form a system of forces equivalent to zero.

3.A body remains at rest unless acted upon by an external force.

4. The applied force being increased, the difference between it and the frictional force will accelerate the body.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

ENERGY

In the language of science energy is the ability to do work. There are various forms of energy, such as heat, mechanical, electrical, chemical, atomic and so on. One might also mention the two kinds of mechanical energy - potential and kinetic,

110

potential energy, being the energy of position while kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

It is well known that one form of energy can be changed into another. A waterfall may serve us an example. Water falling from its raised position, energy changes from potential to kinetic energy. The energy of falling water is generally used to turn the turbines of hydroelectric stations. The turbines in their turn drive the electric generators, the latter producing electric energy. Thus, the mechanical energy of falling water is turned into electric energy. The electric energy, in its turn, may be transformed into any other necessary form.

When an object loses its potential energy, that energy is turned into kinetic energy. Thus, in the above-mentioned example when water is falling from its raised position, it certainly loses its potential energy, that energy changing into kinetic energy.

We have already seen that energy of some kind must be employed to generate the electric current. Generally speaking, the sources of energy usually employed to produce current are either chemical, as in the battery, or mechanical, as in the electromagnetic generator. Chemical sources of current having a limited application, the great quantities of electric energy generated today come from various forms of mechanical energy.

The rising standards of modern civilization and growing industrial application of the electric current result in an increasing need of energy. Every year we need more and more energy. We need it to do a lot of useful things that are done by electricity. However, the energy sources of the world are decreasing while the energy needs of the world are increasing. These needs will continue to grow as more motors and melted metals are used in industry and more electric current is employed in everyday life. As a result, it is necessary to find new sources of energy.

II.Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения.

1.Having been subjected to all necessary tests, the machine was accepted to serial production.

2.When new alloys prove to be difficult to machine, a normal tendency is to reduce the speed of machine.

3.We know work to be done when a weight is lifted, or a spring is stretched, or a gas is compressed in a cylinder.

4.The largest part of the lathe is known to be the bed.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

MACHINE TOOLS

The lathe generally is considered to be the primary machine tool, both because it will do a greater variety of work than any other tool and because almost any other kind of machine tool may be manufactured with the lathe. Modem lathes are highly efficient, accurate and complex devices, capable of doing a great quantity and

111

variety of work. A well constructed engine lathe when properly operated, produces work accurate within 0.001 of an inch or even less.

The size or capacity of a lathe is given in terms of swing and length of bed. The swing refers to the diameter of work to be rotated in the lathe. The length of a lathe shouldn't be confused with the maximum distance between centres when the tailstock is moved to the rear end of the lathe bed. The maximum distance between centres, however, determines the length of the stock to be machined.

Lathes are made in a variety of types and sizes from the small precision lathe found in watch repair shops to the immense machines used in manufacturing big guns. In recent years manufacturers have produced attachments to be employed on a lathe to perform functions or operations formerly done on a special machine a milling attachment, a boring attachment, and a gear-cutting attachment. Such devices greatly extend the variety of work that can be performed on a lathe.

Lathes in general being used for a great variety of operations, naturally there are many different designs and sizes. The various types are usually classified either with respect to some characteristic constructional features or with reference to the general class of work for which the lathe was designed, the most common type of lathe being usually known by manufacturers as an engine lathe or lathe.

Speaking about the types of lathes one cannot help mentioning the automatic lathe. In these lathes all the tool movements are automatically controlled although the work must be inserted and removed by an operator.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.The tool should be harder than the material which it is to cut.

2.A hole being drilled, the material is removed in the form of chips.

3.The bench lathe proves to be a universal machine especially suitable for the production of small parts.

4. We know grinding to be a process of removing metal by means of an abrasive wheel.

ВАРИАНТ 4

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

CUTTING TOOLS

The cutting tool is that part of a cutting machine which serves for removing material from a revolving work. Careful attention should be given to the cutting tools in any metal cutting operation. Cutting tools are made of hardened and tempered steel or alloy metals. Cutting tools have to combine sufficient strength to maintain a sharp cutting edge, sufficient wear resistance to prevent wearing of the cutting edge, sufficient toughness to prevent chipping of the cutting edge.

All cutting tools are known to be provided with a cutting edge or edges which are adaptations of three basic forms, namely, the point, the straight edge and the shaped edge. A pointed cutting edge is the part of a tool where three or more surfaces come to form a point. A straight cutting edge is the part of a tool where two flat surfaces intersect forming a straight line. A shaped cutting edge is formed by intersecting two surfaces, one of which must be curved. But it is the cutting edge of a lathe tool that is the only portion of the tool which actually cuts. The rest of the tool serves as a support for the cutting edge carrying away the heat generated by the cutting action, and aids in the removal of the chip.

112

The plain milling cutter (фреза) is a simple and familiar tool. It is of cylindrical shape and has cutting teeth on the cylindrical surface or periphery only. The cylindrical milling cutter is a tool of a rotating type with a number of cutting edges or teeth spaced at equal distances apart on the cylindrical surface or circumference. The cutting edges may be (1) straight and running parallel to the cutter axis; (2) straight, but at an angle to the cutter axis; or (3) curved, i.e. of helical or spiral form.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения.

1. Grinding is known to be a process of removing metals by means of an abrasive wheel.

2.The tool should be harder than the material which it is to cut. 3.The stock being too hard, the drill could not work efficiently. 4.Machining copper alloys is generally easier than that of steel.

Варианты контрольного задания 4

для студентов автомобильных специальностей (ИАТ, ИУП и ИП)

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно. ENGINE OPERATION

(Four-Stroke Engine Cycle)

The majority of modern engines work on a principle of fuel compression. To understand this principle let us consider the events in a simple one-cylinder engine. The cylinder has a closed end in which a piston can slide up and down, each motion of the piston being termed the stroke. The piston receives one power stroke once every four strokes. The four strokes are suction, compression, power and exhaust.

In the combustion chamber of the cylinder two ports are arranged so that each port should be completely closed by valves. The inlet valve regulates the admission of the explosive charge, while the exhaust valve controls the exit of exhaust gases.

During the suction stroke, the piston is moving down and the fuel charge is being drawn through the inlet valve. The piston reaching its lowest position (or bottom dead centre), the inlet valve shuts.

On the compression stroke the charge is compressed by the piston moving upwards. Both valves are closed.

Just at the moment when the piston reaches the upper end of its stroke (or top dead centre), an electric spark generated by the spark plug passes inside the combustion chamber to ignite the explosive mixture of gasoline vapour and air. The resulting explosion and expanding gases force the piston down. This is the power stroke. Just before the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens.

On the final upward stroke (or the exhaust stroke) the piston forces the exhaust gases out of the cylinder. At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve closes. Now the piston is ready to move down to start the whole cycle over again.

113

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.The engine speed being increased, tractors could be used for road work. 2.These parts should be lubricated after long-time running.

3.Soft water is known to be used in the engine cooling system. 4.The purpose of a compression ring is to prevent gas leakage.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

IGNITION SYSTEM

Sparks are required inside each cylinder of a gasoline engine in order to set fire to the gasoline-air mixture in the cylinder, delivered from the fuel system, and cause explosions that make the engine run. It is the ignition system that does this job.

The typical battery-and-coil ignition system consists of an ignition switch spark plugs, spark plug wires, ignition coils, and a distributor containing ignition contacts, a condenser, breaker cam, rotor and a distributor cap. Also included in the system is a means of controlling the timing - the timer.

The ignition system might be said to have two jobs. First, it must take the low voltage (6 or 12 volts) from the battery, and step it up to the several thousand volts needed' to produce the ignition sparks at the spark plugs in the engine cylinders. Secondly, it must deliver the sparks, to the proper cylinders at the proper time.

To increase (or step up) the voltage of the source the induction coil, the distributor contacts and breaker cam are used. The primary of the induction coil is connected in series with the storage battery. It is mechanically operated so that the primary circuit is closed and then opened at just the right time to make a spark in a cylinder. For this reason the interrupter is often called the timer. The capacitor is connected across the contacts of the interrupter. To set fire to gasoline-air mixture, a spark must jump across the gap in the spark plug, each cylinder having a spark plug of its own.

The secondary is known to be connected to the spark plugs through a device called the distributor, which does just what its name suggests. The distributor arm, or rotor, revolves so that it is opposite the contact point connected to a spark plug at just the instant when the timer contacts break the primary circuit. Thus a spark will occur in each cylinder at the proper time if the distributor and timer are properly adjusted.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.The ignition system is said to be used for two jobs.

2.We know the engine to convert the heat produced by burning fuel into mechanical energy to turn the wheels.

3.The driver having repaired the motor, we could continue our trip.

4.The lubricating system used in the engine is designed to supply oil to all moving parts.

ВАРИАНТ 3

114

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The lubrication system is very important for the high speed gasoline engine. The purpose of lubrication is to reduce the friction between the moving surfaces. It is essential that all the rotating and sliding engine parts should be kept well lubricated, and the lubricating system must be absolutely reliable.

Oil is used to lubricate the moving parts, A good lubricating oil should form an oil-film between the two sliding parts. The oil must, therefore, have sufficient viscosity at all engine working temperatures, but on the other hand it has not to be too viscous at atmospheric temperatures, or it will be difficult to start the engine.

Three types of lubricating systems have been used or are in present use on four cycle engines. These are (1) splash, (2) pressure-feed and (3) combination splash and pressure-feed.

In the pressure-feed system the engine is lubricated from the oil pan. This oil is circulated to various parts by means of a pump. The oil is picked up by the oil pump alter having been drawn through an oil filter which is intended to prevent the particles of dirt from entering the engine. From the oil pump, the oil is forced by pressure to the main bearings of the crankshaft.

The oil lubricates these bearings being distributed evenly over the surface by suitable oil grooves. A portion of this oil is splashed onto the lower part of the cylinder walls from where it is distributed around the entire cylinder wall and also into the hollow piston pins, some of it going to lubricate the piston bosses. Various other parts of the engine are lubricated by part of the oil under pressure or subject to splash.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.Poor lubrication proves to cause considerable damage to the engine parts. 2.A certain temperature being reached, lubricating conditions got much worse.

3.The modern automobile is known to be a complex technical system composed of about 2000 parts,

4.To keep down the excessive temperature all internal combustion engines require some means of cooling.

ВАРИАНТ 4

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно

COOLING SYSTEM

The purpose of the cooling system is to prevent temperatures of cylinders, pistons, valves and other engine parts from rising high enough to destroy them or to destroy the oil, which lubricates them. The liquid in the cooling system may be either water or a mixture of water and antifreeze. The term "coolant" is commonly used to describe both of them.

The liquid cooling system comprises a cooling jacket of the cylinder block and head radiator with pipe connections, water pump, fan, radiator blind, thermostat,

115

water distributing pipe, hoses, drain cocks and the radiator of the automobile heating system.

The coolant contained in the cooling jacket absorbs the heat produced in the engine cylinder; then it flows into the radiator, is cooled there, and returns into the cooling jacket. The liquid in the system is circulated by a water pump while its intensive cooling is achieved by a strong flow of air blowing through the radiator.

As not all the engine parts are heated to the same degree, the abstraction of heat from them should also be different. For this purpose the cooling system is fitted with a water-distributing pipe. Individual parts of the cooling system are interconnected by rubber-canvas hoses. The intensity of cooling is controlled by a thermostat, a radiator blind, or by automatic engagement and disengagement of the radiator fan.

The cooling system is filled with liquid through the radiator filler neck. The coolant is drained through the drain cock located in the radiator lower pipe connection and in the cylinder block cooling jacket.

To sum it up: water cools the engine and air cools the water. Anything which prevents this water-air system from working properly will cause overheating.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.Toward the end of the stroke fuel is injected into the combustion chamber,

where it is ignited and burned.

2.The gasoline fuel system is known to supply the engine with a combustible mixture of fuel and air.

3.Poor lubrication proves to cause considerable damage to the engine parts. 4.The fuel exhausted, the engine stopped.

Варианты контрольного задания 4

для студентов специальностей, связанных с управлением в экономике (ИУП и ИП)

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно. MARKET GOODS AND SERVICES

• Market research

Marketing of a product may actually begin even before there is a product. In other words, a successful business firm does not make something and then decide how to sell it. First a firm tries to find out what it can make that others will buy. Getting information about what consumers or other firms will buy is called market research.

A firm may study the buying habits of consumers to learn why they buy what they buy. A firm may study products or services, such as what it plans to produce, to learn why those products or services sell. Or a firm may "test-market" a product. This means that it produces only a limited quantity of the product to see how well

116

consumers like it. By these and other means, business firms try to get some idea of what kind of product or service will sell.

• Transporting

If goods are to be sold, they must be where those who want them can buy them. If a store is out of a product because of a delay in shipping, the store will probably lose sales. Another important marketing activity, therefore, is transporting products from where they are made or grown to where buyers are. They may be transported by planes, trains, trucks, ships, or pipeline. The method used depends on time and cost.

Many products are moved long distances. In almost any grocery store, you can buy bananas from Central America, tea from India, and canned fish from Norway. Shoes made in St. Louis are sent to New York, Hawaii, Alaska, and everywhere else where people might buy them. We are so used to buying products made hundreds or thousands of miles away that we forget how much we depend on transportation. Almost everything produced is transported at some time on its way to buyers.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.Using the terms "real income" and "real wages" we mean the amount of goods

and services a worker's earnings can buy.

2.We know commercial banks mostly serve the needs of business firms. 3.Checks and credit cards are known to be more convenient to use than cash. 4.Before producing a product a firm must study the situation at the market.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

OUR MONEY CONSISTS OF CURRENCY AND CHECKS Whatever people agree to use for money is their monetary unit. If cows were

used for money, then a cow would be the monetary unit. Each nation has its own monetary unit. In the United States, the dollar is the monetary unit. When talking about money, people often refer to it as "the dollar". The coins and paper bills we use for money are called currency or currency dollars. All such money is printed or coined by the federal government.

The most widely used form of money in the USA, however, is not currency. It is checks. A cheek is an order to a bank to pay a stated sum of money to another person or business. Some people call checks an "invisible" form of money.

Checks are money because they are widely accepted in exchange for goods and services. Business firms pay their workers with checks. Workers pay their bills with checks. The governments pay for almost everything by check. Out of each $100 spent for goods and services in the United States, about $90 is spent by writing checks. Money in the form of checks is sometimes called checkbook dollars, or checkbook money.

MONEY IS A STANDARD OF VALUE

In every exchange, value is an important factor. The value of a product or service is its worth in terms of other products or services. Suppose you wanted shoes and the only thing you had to exchange for them was some fish. You find

117

someone willing to trade shoes for fish, and then your problem is to work out a fair exchange. You might think that you should get two pairs of shoes for the fish. The person with the shoes might insist that your fish were worth only one pair of shoes.

Trading is easier when the values of all goods and services are measured in terms of just one thing - money. The value of anything expressed in money terms is its price. When goods and services have prices, you know what one thing is worth in terms of another. What do most people exchange for goods and services? Their work. The amount a person earns is the price of his or her work. Anything used as a measure is a standard. Money measures value. Therefore, money is a standard of value.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения.

1. Checks and credit cards are known to be more convenient to use than currency.

2.Money being a means by winch exchanges can be made easily, it is called a medium of exchange.

3.Linear programming is being applied to quite a number of economic problems.

4.With barter you have to sell one thing when you want to buy another one.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN OUR FREE ENTERPRISE SYSTEM

Government is an important part of all economic systems. But the role of government varies from one economic system to another. In a planned economy, government controls nearly every aspect of the system. In a free enterprise system, government's role is much smaller. Government's job is to protect the public interest. The public, of course, is all of us. This means that government is responsible for keeping our economic system working efficiently for the benefit of all. This chapter describes only briefly a few ways that government carries out its responsibility. In later chapters, you will find additional information about the role of government in our economic system.

Government is often called the public sector in our economic system. Other parts of our economy, such as business firms, consumers, and workers, are called the private sector.

ALL LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT PERFORM ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS Government in the United States is organized on three levels. They are the

federal government, 50 state governments, and more than 90,000 local governments. A local government may be a city, county, township, village, of school district.

These separate governing units vary in size much as business organizations do. But all of them are organized for the same purpose. That is to do what individuals cannot do or cannot do as well on their own. For example, the federal government protects out country from enemy attack. All levels of government provide courts of

118

law to administer justice. And all levels of government perform some economic functions. As you read about those described, in this chapter, ask yourself two questions about each one. Does our economic system work better than it would if government did not perform the function? Could the function be performed just as well or better by individual effort?

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения.

I. Government is known to be called public sector in our economic system. 2.The present-day development of production planning and management

systems is characterized by an extensive application of economic-mathematical techniques and computers.

3.Before producing a product a firm must study the situation at the market. 4. We know all levels of government perform some economic function.

ВАРИАНТ 4

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

HOW BANKS HELP US DO BUSINESS

One of the most important businesses in any community is a bank. Banks provide the financial services every community needs. They are sometimes called the ''heart" of our business system because other business firms could not operate without their services. You might say that banks help money and credit do their jobs.

The term "bank" is used to identify several types of financial institutions. Most of the nation's banks, however, are commercial banks. As the name suggests, they were founded originally to serve the needs of business firms. Today they serve individuals and government as well. Unless otherwise stated, in this chapter the term "bank" refers to commercial banks.

Many commercial banks have the word "national" or "state" in their names. But they are not government-owned enterprises, as some people think. They are businesses organized to earn a profit for their owners.

BANKS PROVIDE THREE MAJOR SERVICES

Banks vary in size as well as in the number and kinds of services they offer. What a bank offers in the way of services depends on the needs of the community it serves. The financial needs of big cities are naturally greater than those of small towns. There are three services, however, that all commercial banks perform:

1.They accept deposits.

2.They transfer money payments made by check. 3.They make loans.

Even if you have never been inside a bank, you probably know that it is a place where money is kept. Safeguarding funds is perhaps the oldest function of banks. It is still one of their principle functions. Money left with a bank for safekeeping is a deposit. Together the more than 14,000 commercial banks in this country hold about $850 billion of money belonging to individuals, business firms,

119

governments, clubs, schools, churches, and other organizations. Any person or organization that keeps money in a bank is a depositor.

Banks keep a record of the amount belonging to each of their depositors. This record is known us an account. If you are a depositor at a bank, you have an account with the bank. The amount in a bank account, of course, changes whenever money is deposited in or taken out of the account. Money taken out of a bank account is called a withdrawal.

II. Проанализируйте и письменно переведите следующие предложения. 1.Banks are known to provide financial services every society needs.

2. Mathematical methods make possible the most rational calculations of many economic factors of good management.

3.We know commercial banks to serve mostly the needs of business firms. 4.The greater the city, the greater are its financial needs.

Варианты контрольного задания 4

для студентов химико-металлургических специальностей

(МТИ)

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Перепишите и переведите текст письменно.

THE PERIODIC SYSTEM

The periodic law of elements discovered by the great Russian scientist Mendeleyev is known to be one of the basic laws of chemistry. In 1869 Mendeleyev published his work, describing an arrangement of the elements that has since become known as the Periodic system. He arranged the elements in the order of their atomic weights, starting from the lowest and showed that: I) elements, if they are arranged according to their atomic weights, exhibit the periodicity of properties; 2) elements, which have similar chemical properties, have atomic weights which are of nearly the same value, or which increase regularly; 3) the arrangement of the elements in the order of their atomic weights corresponds to their valencies and to some extent to their chemical properties (lithium, barium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, iron); 4) widely diffused elements have small atomic weights; 5) the magnitude of the atomic weight determines the diameter of the element, just as the magnitude of a molecule determines the character of a compound: 6) the discovery of many as yet unknown elements, whose atomic weights will be between 65 - 75, can be expected; 7) the atomic weight of given element may be found from a knowledge of the atomic weights of the contiguous elements; 8) certain characteristic properties of the elements can be foretold from their atomic weights.

When Mendeleyev first arranged his Periodic Table he left two gaps between zinc and arsenic in the fourth period and another gap between calcium and titanium as no elements to fill these gaps were known at that time. But Mendeleyev foretold, however, that three elements would be discovered to fill the gaps and

120