38. Types of valency.

Valency – the conventional mutual expectancy of Ws in all types of Wgroups

irrespective of the degree of structural & semantic cohesion(слияние)k∂u’hi:Ʒ(∂)n of their components.

the power of a W to combine with other Ws in speech

 

Lexical grammatical

Grammatical valency – the aptness of a W to appear in certain grammatical (syntactic) patterns/structures

The pattern of a Wgroup – the minimal gr-l context in which Ws are used when brouhgt together to form Wgroups.

The range of gr-l V is delimited by the p of speech the W belongs to.

The gr-l V of each individual W is dependent on the gr-l structure of the L

Though Gr V is predetermined to a large extent by grammar rules

it is still different for each particular W

 to offer/to suggest

! In dif L-ges correlative (соответствующие) Ws may differ greatly as to their V

 smile at улыбаться кому-л

enter a room войти в комнату

The differences in Gr-l variants of correlative Ws are usu accounted for by

4. their semantic differences

5. differences in the structure of the L

Lexical valency – the aptness of a W to appear in certain combinations with other lexical units

! Свободной сочетаемости (free collocability) не существует!

Even well & bad are restricted to some extent

There is a certain norm of Lex V for each W & any departure from it is felt as a literary or stylistic device

 a cigarette ago, to shove a question

Ws habitually used in speech tend to constitute a cliché

 win a victory, put forward a question

The lex-l V of correlated Ws in dif L-ges is not identical

 комнатные цветы – pot flowers

Smtimes the volume of semantics of the semantic structure in one L & its correlative in another L don’t coexist

?  bury the trash – похоронить прах

to accompany 1. аккомпанировать

6. сопровождать кого-л (– в рус нет этого значения)

Dif M-ings of a W may be described through the possible types of lex-l contexts

 through the lex-l V of the W

heavy book drinker industry

rain sleep

Individual M-ings of a polysemantic W may be described through its gr-l valency

 keen sight keen on sports keen to know

Wgroups may distinguish dif M-ings of a Polysemantic W

31. The principle semantic processes  change of meaning (m)

It is necessary to discriminate between

1) the causes of semantic change (WHY the W changed its M)

2) the results (WHAT was changed+‼denotational components)&

3. the nature of the process of the change of M (HOW various changes of M were brought about)

1.Causes:

Linguistic restrictions:

1. Inner structure of the Eng w-stock

All Ws in a L form Wgroups & sentences if Wcombinations don’t violate the syntax (+grammar) of the L

 A child smiles – a smiles child

 lift  x clever at mathematics

raise  a question mathematics at clever

The restrictions of Lex V may manifest itselves in the Lex-l M-ings of the polysemantic members of Wgroups

 heavy food, meals, supper but heavy cheese, sausage

– dif to digest

+ Ws make Wgroups in speech if their semantical structures are compatible (сочетаемы)

• extralinguistic changes in the life of the speech community

 economic & social structure

as reflected in W M-ings ideas, scientific concepts

way of life &

other spheres of human activities

 Car ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which meant “a four-wheeled wagon”

Now denotes “a motor-car”, “a railway carriage(USA)”, “”that portion of an airship, or baloon which is intended to carry personnel, cargo or equipment

• linguistic factors acting within the L system

1. ellipsis  Starve Old Eng “to die”now “to die of hunger”

usu used (ME) sterven of hunger

2.discrimination of synonyms

 land Old Eng both “solid part of earth’s surface” now mainly the 1^st M

‘the territory of a nation’country

the M is constantly changing. The change of M has

2.results:

(Semantic changes in the denotational component may bring about)

Changes in the denotational M

1. the extention

 arrive in old Eng was ‘to come by sea’

2. the restriction of M = narrowing

 hound was ‘a dog of any breed’  ‘a dog used in the chase’

deer old Eng ‘a beast’  олень

3. specialisation – the W with the new M comes to be used in the specialized

vocabulary of some limited group within the speech commumity

 to glide ‘to move gently & smoothly’(restr+spec)  ‘to fly with no engine’(a glider)

desemantisation – some features of hte M are lost

awful –dreadful  awfully need smth – ‘awfully’ is only an intensifier

4. generalization – the W with the specialized M passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use

 camp was a military term ‘the place where troops are lodged in tents’ (ext+gen) ‘temporary quarters’ (of travellers..)

the change in the connotational component may result in

 deterioration=degradation – the acquisition by the W of some

T pejorative development of M derogatory emotive charge ['pi:dʒ(∂)r∂tiv]

 boor was ‘a villager, a peasant’  ‘a clumsy, ill-bred fellow’

idiot ‘uneducated person’  now a curse W

amelioration = elevation – T ameliorative [∂'mi:lj∂r∂tiv] development of M – T attitude to T referent is changed – T improvement of T connotational component of M

 minister ‘a servant, an attendant’  ‘a civil servant of higher rank’

liberal – in the past ‘with loose morale’  now ‘open mind’