Источники международного права

Под источником международного права понимается форма выражения и закрепления нормы международного права. Необходимо отметить, что согласно ст. 38 Статута Международного суда «Суд, который обязан решать переданные ему споры на основании между­народного права применяет:

а) международные конвенции, как общие, так и специальные, определенно признанные спорящими государствами;

б) международный обычай, как доказательство всеобщей практи­ки, признанной в качестве правовой нормы;

в) общие принципы права, признанные цивилизованными нациями;

г) судебные решения и доктрины, наиболее квалифицированных специалистов по публичному праву различных наций, в качестве вспомогательного средства для определения правовых норм».

В теории международного права основными источниками признаются международный договор и международный обычай.

Под международным договором понимается соглашение между государствами или другими субъектами международного права, за­ключенное в письменной форме, по поводу установления, изменения или прекращения взаимных прав и обязанностей. Количество дого­ворных норм огромно, и в практике чаще всего приходится иметь «дело с этими нормами.

Под международным обычаем согласно ст. 38 Статута Междуна­родного суда понимается доказательство всеобщей практики, признанной в качестве правовой нормы. Обычные нормы складываются в международной практике и признаются субъектами международного права как обязательное правило поведения.

Unit II the un, its main organs and activities

Task 1. Make sure you know the meaning of the words and their definitions below

be committed to	be devoted to
promote	assist or encourage
force an action	produce through effort
resume	begin again
subject of particular concern	smth of importance, interest
subsidiary body	serving to aid or supplement, subordinate in function
convene	gather, or summon, esp. for a formal meeting
undertake mediation	an act of resolving a dispute when the third party consults with those involved
secure a ceasefire	guarantee a more permanent peace on agreed terms
maintain the truce	support an agreement to stop fighting
impose	enforce
enforce decisions	ensure observance of the decision
foster cooperation	promote cooperation
amend	improve, change for the better
substantive	having independent function
virtually	practically, nearly

Task 2. Read and translate the text

The United Nations was established on 24 October, 1945 by 51 countries committed to preserving peace through international cooperation and collective security. Today nearly every nation in the world belongs to the UN: membership totals 191 countries.

When States become Members of the United Nations, they agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter, an international treaty that sets out basic principles of international relations.

According to the Charter, the UN has four purposes:

1) to maintain international peace and security;

2) to develop friendly relations among nations;

3) to cooperate in solving international problems and promoting respect for human rights;

4) to be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations.

The UN is not a world government and it does not make laws. It does, however, provide the means to help resolve international conflicts and formulate policies on matters affecting all of us. At the UN, all Member States – large and small, rich and poor, with differing political views and social systems – have a voice and a vote in this process.

The UN has six main organs. Five of them – the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the Secretariat – are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International Court of Justice, is located at the Hague in the Netherlands.

The General Assembly

All UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly - a “parliament of nations», which meets to consider the world’s most pressing problems. Each Member State has one vote. Decisions on such key issues as international peace and security, admitting new members and the UN budget are decided by two-thirds majority. Simple majority decides other matters. In recent years, a special effort has been made to reach decisions through consensus rather than by taking a formal vote.

At its sessions the Assembly is considering a great number of different topics, including globalization, AIDS, protection of the environment and consolidation of new democracies.

The Assembly cannot force an action by any State, but its recommendations are an important indication of world opinion and represent the moral authority of the community of nations.

The Assembly holds its annual regular session from September to December. When necessary, it may resume its session or hold a special or emergency session on subjects of particular concern. When the Assembly is not meeting, its work is carried out by its six main committees, other subsidiary bodies and the UN Secretariat.

The Security Council

The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Council may convene at any time, whenever peace is threatened. Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to carry out the Council’s decisions.

There are 15 Council members. Five of these – China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States – are permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.

Decisions of the Council require nine ‘yes’ votes. Except in votes on procedural questions, a decision cannot be taken if there is a ‘no’ vote, or veto, by a permanent member.

When the Council considers a threat to international peace, it first explores ways to settle the dispute peacefully. It may suggest principles for a settlement or undertake mediation.

In the event of fighting, the Council tries to secure a ceasefire. It may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces apart.

The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions. It can impose economic sanctions or order an arms embargo. On rare occasions, the Council has authorized Member States to use “all necessary means” including collective military action, to see that its decisions are carried out.

The Council also makes recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment of a new Secretary-General and on the admission of new members to the UN.

The Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations.

As the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and for formulating policy recommendations, the Council plays a key role in fostering international cooperation for development.

It also consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), thereby maintaining a vital link between the UN and civil society.

The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets throughout the year and holds a major session in July, during which a special meeting of Ministers discusses major economic, social and humanitarian issues.

The Council’s subsidiary bodies meet regularly and report back to it.

The Commission on Human Rights, for example, monitors the observance of human rights throughout the world.

Other bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women, crime prevention, narcotic drugs and environmental protection.

The Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories administered by seven Member States and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as separate States or by joining neighbouring independent countries.

Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council. It has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet as and when the occasion may require.

The International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the main judicial organ of the UN. Consisting of 15 judges the Court decides disputes between countries. Participation by States in a proceeding is voluntary, but if a State agrees to participate, it is obligated to comply with the Court’s decision.

The Court also provides advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council upon request.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the UN as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council and the other organs. At its head is the Secretary-General, who provides overall administrative guidance.

The Secretariat consists of departments and offices with total staff of some 7,500 under the regular budget, and nearly equal number under special funding. They are drawn from some 170 countries. Duty stations include UN Headquarters in NY, as well as UN offices in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi and other locations.

The UN system

The International Monetary Fund, The World Bank, and 12 other independent organizations known as ‘specialized agencies’ are linked to the UN through cooperative agreements.

These agencies, among which are the World Health Organization and the International Aviation Organization, are autonomous bodies created by intergovernmental agreement. They have wide-ranging international responsibilities in the economic, cultural, educational, health and related fields.

In addition, a number of UN offices, programs and funds – such as the office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Children’s Fund , etc. work to improve the economic and social condition of people around the world. They report to the General Assembly or the Economic and Social Council.

All these organizations have their own governing bodies, budgets and secretariats. Together with the UN, they are known as the UN family, or the UN system. Together, they provide technical assistance and other forms of practical help in virtually all economic and social areas.

Task 3. Answer the following questions using the information of the text

1. When was the UN established and for what purposes?

2. What does the UN Charter set out?

3. Do all member states at the UN have a voice and a vote?

4. What are the main organs of the UN?

5. What kind of issues does the General Assembly consider?

6. What are the functions of the General Assembly and how does it take its decisions?

7. What responsibilities does the Security Council have?

8. What is the condition for the decisions of the Security Council to be taken?

9. What instruments does the Security Council use when there is a threat to peace?

10. What measures can the Security Council undertake to enforce its decisions?

11. What organ of the UN coordinates the economic and social work of all member states?

12. What functions do the subsidiary bodies of the Economic and Social Council fulfill?

13. Why doesn’t the Trusteeship Council meet regularly?

14. What is the main judicial organ of the UN and what are its functions?

15. What functions does the Secretariat carry out?

16. What organizations constitute the UN family and what practical help do they provide?

Task 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box

maintain consider force an action develop order truce

concern reach resolve hold resume sets out responsibility carry out convene settle threatened secure enforce decides

impose emergency undertake coordinates link attained substantive

1. The UN Charter_________ basic principles of international relations.

2. Some of the main purposes of the UN are to _______ international peace and security and to _______ friendly relations among nations.

3. The UN provides the means to help _______ international conflicts.

4. The General Assembly meets to _______the world’s most pressing problems.

5. The Assembly cannot ________by any state, but its recommendations represent the moral authority of the community of nations.

6. A special effort has been made to _______decisions through consensus.

7. The Assembly may _______ its session or _______ a special or ________ session on subjects of particular ________.

8. The Security Council was given primary________for maintaining international peace and security.

9. All member states are obligated to _________ the Council’s decisions.

10. The Council may_______ at any time, whenever peace is _________.

11. The Council explores ways to ________ the dispute peacefully and may ____ mediation.

12. In the event of fighting, the Council tries to ________ a ceasefire.

13. A peacekeeping mission helps the parties maintain the________ and keep opposing forces apart.

14. The Council can take measures to _______ its decisions. It can _______ economic sanctions or _______ an arms embargo.

15. The Economic and Social council _______ the economic and social work of the United Nations and maintain a vital _______ between the United Nations and civil society.

16. All Trust Territories had _______ self-government or independence by 1994.

17. The International Court of Justice ________ disputes between countries.

18. The Secretariat carries out the ________ and administrative work of the UN.

Task 5. Mark the sentences as True or False

1. The UN Charter sets out insignificant principles of international relations.

2. The UN is a world government and makes laws.

3. When States become Members of the UN they agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter.

4. Some of the UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly, which meets to consider the world’s most topical problems.

5. The General Assembly can force an action by any state, but its recommendations are an important indication of world opinion.

6. The Security Council is given subsidiary responsibility for maintaining peace and security of nations.

7. When the Council considers a threat to international peace it first explores the military means to settle the dispute.

8. The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions but it can’t impose economic sanctions.

9. The Economic and Social Council coordinates the political and social work of the UN and the UN family of organizations.

10. The Commission on Human Rights monitors the observance of human rights throughout Europe.

11. Other the Council’s subsidiary bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women, prevention of crime, etc.

12. Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now meets as and when the occasion may require.

13. The ICJ is the main political organ of the UN.

14. The Court decides disputes between countries but cannot provide advisory opinions to the General Assembly.

15. The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the UN.

16. Independent organizations known as “specialized agencies” are linked to the UN through peacekeeping agreements.

17. All these organizations provide practical help in all economic and social areas.

Task 6. Translate the following

To preserve peace and security, to set out basic principles, обеспечить прекращение огня, special or emergency session, урегулировать конфликты мирным путем, to maintain the truce, разрешение конфликтов, most pressing problems, простое большинство, undertake mediation, according to/under the Charter, защита окружающей среды, to commit to, develop friendly relations, promote respect for human rights, to provide the means, key issue, применять силовые действия по отношению к другим государствам, вопросы, вызывающие особую озабоченность, convene, whenever peace is threatened, to carry out decisions, проводить сессию, to take a decision, threat to international peace, peacekeeping mission, координировать экономическую и социальную работу, to keep opposing forces apart, to enforce one’s decision, impose economic sanctions, в течение года, order an arms embargo, collective military means, make recommendations, неправительственные организации, контролировать соблюдение, attain self-government or independence, voluntary participation, to comply with, upon request, substantive, provide administrative guidance, соглашения по сотрудничеству, wide-ranging responsibilities, отчитываться перед, to provide practical help.

Task 7. Match the words and word combinations with their Russian equivalents

to secure a ceasefire	когда существует угроза миру
to settle the disputes peacefully	налагать экономические санкции
to maintain the truce	защита окружающей среды
undertake mediation	неправительственные организации
environmental protection	поддерживать перемирие
to resolve conflicts	контролировать соблюдение
to monitor the observance	разрешать конфликты
non-governmental organizations	выполнять посредническую функцию
collective military actions	обеспечить прекращение огня
impose economic sanctions	осуществлять решение
to enforce one’s decision	урегулировать конфликты мирным путем
whenever peace is threatened	коллективные военные действия
to force an action by any state	применять силовые действия по отношению к другим государствам
to provide the means	отчитываться перед
upon request	поддерживать международный мир и безопасность
wide-ranging responsibilities	созывать
cooperation agreements	вопросы, вызывающие особую озабоченность
to report to	обеспечивать средства
subjects of particular concern	соглашения по сотрудничеству
maintain international peace and security	возобновить заседание сессии
to provide advisory opinion	подчиняться
to resume a session	по просьбе
to convene	широкий круг полномочий
to comply with	высказывать компетентное мнение, давать консультацию

Task 8. Complete the sentences with the endings from the text

1. The United Nations is not a world government and it does not …

2. All UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly which meets to consider the world’s most ...

3. The Assembly cannot force an action by any state, but its recommendations are an important indication of world opinion and …

4. When necessary, the Assembly may resume its session or hold a special or …

5. The UN Charter gives The Security Council primary responsibility for …

6. A decision cannot be taken if there is a no vote, or veto, by …

7. When a Council considers a threat to international peace, it first …

8. In the event of fighting, the Council tries …

9. The Council may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain … and …

10. The Council can impose economic sanctions or …

11. The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordinates … and …

12. The Council’s subsidiary bodies meet regularly and …

13. Trust Territories had attained …

14. The International Court of Justice is the main …

15. The Court decides …

16. The Court also provides advisory opinions to …

17. The Secretariat carries out the substantive and …

Task 9. Choose the correct variant

1. a) When States become Members of the United Nations; they agree to comply with the decisions of the General Assembly, the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council.

b) When States become Members of the United Nations; they agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter.

2. a) The United Nations is a world government but it does not make laws.

b) The United Nations is not a world government and it does not make laws.

3. a) All the member States – large and small, rich and poor, with differing political views and social systems – have a voice and a vote in this process.

2. b) All the member States – large and small, rich and poor, with differing political views and social systems – give a voice and a vote in this process.

4. a) Decisions on such key issues as international peace and security, admitting new members and the UN budget are decided by simple majority.

b) Decisions on such key issues as international peace and security, admitting new members and the UN budget are decided by two-thirds majority.

5. a) The Assembly cannot force an action by any State, but its recommendations are an important indication of private opinion and represent the moral authority of the community of nations.

b) The Assembly cannot force an action by any State, but its recommendations are an important indication of world opinion and represent the moral authority of the community of nations.

6. a) A decision of the Council cannot be taken if there is a no vote, or veto, by a temporary member.

b) A decision of the Council cannot be taken if there is a no vote, or veto, by a permanent member.

7. a) The Council may send a peacemaking mission to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces apart.

b) The Council may send a peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces apart.

8. a) The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions. It can impose economical sanctions or order an arms embargo.

b) The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions. It can impose economic sanctions or order an arms embargo.

9. a) The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the Security council, coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations.

b) The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations.

10. a) The international Court of Justice, also known as the European Court, is the main judicial organ of the UN.

b) The international Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the main judicial organ of the UN.

Task 10. Translate into English

Предшественником ООН была Лига Наций, организация, задуманная при схожих обстоятельствах во время Первой мировой войны и учрежденная в 1919 году в соответствии с Версальским договором «для развития сотрудничества между народами и для обеспечения им мира и безопасности».

В 1945 году представители 50 стран собрались в Сан-Франциско на Конференции Объединенных Наций по созданию международной организации, чтобы разработать Устав ООН. В основу работы делегаты положили предложения, выработанные представителями Китая, Советского Союза, Великобритании и Соединенных Штатов в Думбартон-Оуксе в августе-октябре 1944 года. Устав был подписан 26 июня 1945 года представителями 50 стран. Польша, не представленная на Конференции, подписала его позднее и стала 51-м государством-основателем.

Организация Объединенных Наций официально существует с 24 октября 1945 года, к этому дню Устав был ратифицирован Китаем, Францией, Советским Союзе, Великобританией, Соединенными Штатами и большинством других подписавших его государств. Двадцать четвертое октября ежегодно отмечается как День Организации Объединенных Наций.

Task 11. Prepare a short presentation on:

1. The UN main organs and their activities.

2. The issues the General Assembly considers.

3. The Security Council and its decision-taking process.

4. The Economic and Social Council – the coordinator of the economic and social work.

5. The functions of the Secretariat.

6. Why is the UN necessary?

7. The UN in the 21th century.

8. Reforming the UN.