7. Антонімічний переклад (формальна негативація)

Крайнім випадком такого способу перекладу, як семантичний розвиток, при перекладі слів і словосполучень є так званий "антонімічний" переклад, коли форма слова або словосполучення замінюється на протилежну (позитивна - на негативну і навпаки), а зміст одиниці, що перекладається, залишається в основному подібним.

По суті, термін "антонімічний переклад", який зустрічається в перекладознавчій літературі, є неточним, оскільки слово, що перекладається, не замінюється на антонім у мові перекладу, а змінює лише форму на про­тилежну, тоді як його зміст, значення залишається без особливих змін. Тому для позначення означеного способу перекладу краще використовувати тер­мін "формальна негативація", в якому підкреслюється саме зміна форми слова або словосполучення і не йдеться про антонімічність як таку, що пов'язана із зміною змісту на протилежний.

Означена трансформація представлена трьома видами: 1) негативація (слово або словосполучення без формально вираженої суфіксом або часткою заперечувальної семи замінюється в перекладі на слово з префік­сом не- або словосполученням з часткою не, наприклад, to continue - не зупинятися, small - невеликий, to ignore - не помічати), 2) позитивація (сло­во або словосполучення з формально вираженою заперечувальною семою замінюється в перекладі на слово або словосполучення, яке не містить фор­мально вираженого негативного компонента, наприклад, unabbreviated - повний, unabolished - такий, що залишається чинним, unallowed - заборо­нений, to disable - блокувати, закривати), 3) анулювання двох наявних у реченні негативних семантичних компонентів (наприклад, to not defuse - залишати із запальником (бомбу), not impossible - можливий, not disaggre­gative - цільний, to disappear never - завжди залишатися).

В певних контекстах деякі англійські слова, що не мають у своєму складі заперечувальних морфем, але містять, як правило, заперечувальний семантичний компонент, можуть перекладатися подібними за значеннями словами з префіксом "не-" або сполученнями частки "не" з антонімічним відповідником слова, що перекладається, наприклад, to fail "не вдатися", to hate "не полюбляти", to be ignorant "бути несвідомим (чогось)", avoidable "ненеминучий". Тому формальна негативація є одним з прийомів реаліза­ції контекстуальної заміни, тобто такої лексичної заміни, що можлива лише в певному контексті.

Одними з таких слів, при перекладі яких найчастіше застосовується даний прийом, є дієслово to fail та похідний від нього іменник failure:

Moreover, a gas chromatograph failed to detect the presence of organic molecules. Більше того, газовий хроматограф не зміг виявити присутність органічних молекул.

Whitney, however, failed to profit from his invention. Однак Вітні нічого не заробив на своєму винаході.

Debtors might be put to death if their failure to pay their creditors was due to fraudulent practices. Боржників могли стратити, якщо вони були нездатні сплатити борги через свої махінації.

Thought disorders may be observed as a failure to make logical connec­tions. Порушення мислення можуть виявлятися у нездатності встановлю­вати логічні зв'язки.

Часто прийом формальної негативації застосовується при перекладі складних речень, що містять заперечувальну частку not і сполучник until або unless:

Recessive genetic diseases do not show up in children unless both parents are carrying a gene for that particular disease. Рецесивні генетичні хвороби виявляються у дітей, батьки яких є носіями гену тієї чи іншої хвороби.

Large-scale structures of the universe did not become a preoccupation of cosmology until the mid-1980s. Великі структури всесвіту стали об'єктом докладного дослідження лише в 1980-і роки.

Слід зауважити, що в таких випадках в переклад нерідко вводиться частка лише, як в останньому прикладі.

Завдання 1 Перекладіть речення, застосовуючи прийом формальної негативації до відповідних слів, словосполучень та інших компонентів речень:

1. Transatlantic telephone transmission was not accomplished until 1956. 2. Governments do not relinquish their authority unless compelled to do so. 3. In both France and England a truly classical style was not established until the first half of the 17th century. 4. First, they have a sophisticated flowing line not unli­ke that of modern bentwood and tubular-steel furniture. 5. For unknown reasons Iraq chose not to unleash its chemical weapons arsenal in the Persian Gulf War of 1991. 6. It was not until the 12th century, however, that canals similar to those used today were built in Western Europe. 7. Indeed, the problem of determining longitude at sea was not solved until the mid-18th century. 8. These programs continue, with emphasis now on breeding new crop varieties that need little fertilizer or irrigation. 9. Most physicians will not make the diagnosis of hyper­tension unless the pressure is high on at least three separate occasions. 10. Not until the late 18th century did ancient Greek and Roman architecture cease to be regarded as an unassailable criterion of excellence throughout the Western world. 11. In this regard Venezuela reigns supreme because of its petroleum deposits. Ecuador, Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia have more modest- but not unimportant-oil resources. 12. Tsunamis travel at speeds up to 800 km/h (500 mph), however, and grow higher as they near land; tsunamis 18 to 30 m (60-100 ft) high are not uncommon. 13. Not until the 18th century did scientists begin to appreciate the complex chemistry of metallurgy. 14. Color has so many meanings for different observers that a strict definition is difficult, if not impossible. 15. But not until 1939, when an entirely new phenomenon was discovered by Otto Harm and Fritz Strassmann, did a net gain of energy appear possible. 16. Pigs may be fattened in buildings that each house 1,000 animals; and cattle feedlots contai­ning up to 100,000 animals are not uncommon. 17. The hydrofoil has been un­der development since the early 20th century, but it was not until 1956 that the first hydrofoil went into operation between Sicily and Italy. 18. Rainfall in such regions is also highly uncertain and serious periodic droughts are not uncom­mon. 19. Finally, the capital investment required to find and develop ore depo­sits and bring them into profitable production must be undertaken over a time period longer than that needed for agricultural or other industrial enterprises; 3 to 7 years is not unusual. 20. Thus, they created in effect a world full of comp­lex and subtle cross-references- not unlike this encyclopedia- and readily acces­sible to everyday participants in popular culture. 21. Early instruments- crude but not unsophisticated by modern standards- enabled the land surveyor to mea­sure the angles and distances used to create the network of measurements. 22. This potential will not materialize, however, unless such economically impo­verished but resource-rich countries as Zaire, China, and Nepal attract inves­tment capital and create markets for hydroelectricity. 23. Negotiations for a new treaty began in the 1950s but were not completed until 1977, when Panamanian voters approved two accords. 24. The exact type of infection was not officially disclosed, but the widespread opinion is that it was prostatitis. 25. The matter was not considered settled until 18 years later, when John Robinson of Scotland made more direct measurements of the electrical force involved. 26. These fin­dings prompted three quite different reactions: (1) that organizations would not misuse the new computing power, and no legal change was necessary. 27. It is employed mainly in the study of physical systems whose complexities make full mathematical solutions difficult if not impossible. 28. The combined signs may range from mild, not unlike the behavior of a normally exuberant child, to severe. 29. A central member of the naturalist school at Columbia, he developed a logi­cal empiricism that did not exclude feelings, ideas, and aspirations. 30. In either approach, one computer will not be able to communicate with another unless they use the same protocol. 31. A number of disparate artistic currents and tradi­tions coexisted and influenced one another, not infrequently within the same genre, as in portraiture. 32. The principle behind self-winding watches had been known for about 2 centuries, but it was not widely applied until the 1920s, when wristwatches became popular. 33. For convenience in commerce, the Bordeaux merchants classified their finest red wines as early as 1725, but it was not until 1855 that such a classification, based on the market price for each wine, recei­ved official recognition. 34. In late 1939, President Roosevelt ordered an Ame­rican effort to obtain an atomic weapon before the Germans, but significant assistance did not begin until his coordinator of scientific activities for the war, Varmevar Bush, took charge. 35. By 1860 the cattle industry of the Corn Belt states was highly developed; that of the Great Plains and the Mountain States was not fully stocked until the 1880s, however. 36. The industrial expansion that began in the 17th century caused a fuel shortage that was not alleviated until the replacement of wood by coal and of charcoal by coke. 37. Not until the appea­rance of X-ray, radio, and nuclear instrumentation were innovations made that compared in importance to the appearance of optical, electrical, and electromag­netic apparatus. 38. The improper admission of evidence in a trial is often gro­unds for an appeal, and persons convicted of crimes have not infrequently been released because illegally obtained evidence was wrongfully permitted to be presented to a jury.

Завдання 2 Перекладіть речення з дієсловом to fail та іменником failure, застосувавши прийом формальної негативації:

1. If the power-assisting mechanism should fail, or if the engine stalls, the brakes will not fail completely, although greater pedal pressure will be nee­ded. 2. Cosmos 419, launched May 10, 1971, appears to have been a Mars pro­be, but it failed to leave its parking orbit around the Earth. 3. The two orbiters arrived on Feb. 10 and 12, 1974, but Mars 4 missed the planet by 2,100 km (1,300 mi) when its braking engine failed to operate. 4. The agency has been criticized for failing to take prompt action where nuclear plants were found to be violating the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's own standards; for failing to insure that workers were properly trained; and for lagging in its investigations of mismanagement and criminal activities at nuclear plants. 5. The U.S. gover­nment is also the target of suits, because exposure standards it set in World War II shipyards were known at the time to be ineffective; it also failed to mandate adequate safety measures. 6. Edison thought so little of the Kinetograph that he failed to extend his patent rights to England and Europe, an oversight that allowed two Frenchmen, Louis and Auguste Lumiere, to manufacture a more portable camera (which also functioned as a printer and a projector), the Cinematograph, based on Edison's machine. 7. By the end of the 1980s more than 12,000 products were being introduced annually, although some 80 percent of them failed to sell profitably and were withdrawn. 8. Nearby valleys below the meter level fail to attract and thus also make the meter read less. 9. American physicist Gordon Gould won his 30-year battle to obtain a patent for a gas discharge laser he had conceived in 1957. He had written his ideas in a notebook at the time, and had them officially recorded, but failed to apply for a patent until 1959 because of poor legal advice. 10. Unfortunately, most of these extensions are incompatible with one another, so that a program written for one machine may fail to run on another. 11. Some gas-operated semiautomatic rifles were produced. Those which were field-tested in the trenches during World War I, however, failed to gain favor because mud quickly clogged their mechanisms. 12. Both kinds of rubber are needed in the modern world. In fact, production of natural rubber since 1945 has failed to match the growing demand for rubber, with the result that natural rubber has seen its share of the rubber business stea­dily decline. 13. Having failed to sell the "daguerreotype" process to pay debts, he was forced to accept pensions for life in exchange for the invention. 14. Al­ternative designs for increasing power and efficiency were canceled by cost or other considerations, as the more radical changes were found impractical, and the more moderate ones failed to produce the expected economies. The steam engine was eventually replaced altogether by the more efficient and serviceable diesel locomotive. 15. If different parts of the sky have never been in contact, how did they become so uniform? In addition, the big bang fails to account for the dumpiness now seen in the universe. 16. A solar eclipse is called annular when the tip of the umbra fails to reach the Earth; then only the center of the Sun is obscured, leaving a bright ring, or annulus. 17. In 1969, Albert Ghiorso and colleagues at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, California, failed to repeat the Dubna results but created two other isotopes, one with mass number 257 and a half-life of 4.5 seconds and the other with mass number 259 and a half-life of 3 seconds. 18. After failing to obtain a physics position at Basel in 1726, he joined the St. Petersburg Academy of Science in 1727. 19. Unfortunately, if coalitions are too strong the core may fail to exist, and if the coalitions are too weak, the core may include a great variety of different outcomes and not provide a satis­factory solution of the game. 20. The steadily improving data base, however, has failed to reveal a climatological double-jet structure except over Australia. 21. While the BCS theory has been quite successful in explaining the properties of metallic superconductors, it fails to explain several important aspects of new ceramic superconductors. 22. Seebeck failed to understand the basic nature of his discovery, because in subsequent experiments he used closed circuits of two dissimilar materials and claimed that the resulting deflections of nearby magne­tic-compass needles proved that heat currents produce the same effect. 23. The­se indicators, however, have sometimes failed to alert air traffic controllers and pilots of potentially hazardous wind-shear conditions. 24. Marred by its obscure presentation, his theory failed to win acceptance, and the corpuscular theory prevailed until Augustin J. Fresnel developed wave optics with greater precision and coherence. 25. His discovery was the result of heating mercuric acid, but Priestley failed to realize the significance of what he had found. 26. Therefore, friction is high when the machine is started in motion, and the bearing may fail if high stresses are put on it during starting. 27. He was the first to develop a non-Euclidean geometry, but Gauss failed to publish these important findings beca­use he wished to avoid publicity. 28. Newlands's discovery failed to impress his contemporaries, probably because the observed periodicity was limited to only a small number of the known elements. 29. Although he performed successfully eight more such operations during the next four years, he failed to announce his results until 1849. 30. However, his neglect of other subjects in college led him to fail and lose his scholarship. 31. Hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time but failed to carry many of them thro­ugh to completion. 32. He failed to apply for a patent at that time, but through subsequent legal struggles, won partial patents in 1977 and 1979, and in 1987 he gained a patent that covers several types of laser. 33. Even the Great Depression of the 1930s failed to prevent continued industrial development. 34. The Act also makes it an offence to sell any food which fails to meet safety requirements. 35. Access time is normally measured in milliseconds (thousandths of a second) and covers the interval between the time the read/write command is issued and the time information indicating the success (or failure) of the opera­tion is received. 36. Rapid decompression, resulting from accidental failure at high altitudes of the pressure within the cabin, causes major damage to the heart and other organs by the ram effect of gases formed in the body cavities. 37. To offset the inconvenience of power failures, emergency power generators are in­stalled in an increasing number of buildings. 38. A related field of engineering, human-factors engineering, also known as ergonomics, received wide attention in the late 1970s and 1980s when the safety of nuclear reactors was questioned following serious accidents that were caused by operator errors, design failures, and malfunctioning equipment. 39. Even when the maximum stress never exce­eds the elastic limit, failure of the material can occur even after a short time. 40. The success of Euler and other mathematicians in using calculus to solve mathematical and physical problems, however, only accentuated their failure to develop a satisfactory justification of its basic ideas. 41. Notably, the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist E. Mariotte to dup­licate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. 42. In 1931 Pauli, in order to explain the apparent failure of some conservation laws in certain radioactive processes, postulated the existence of electrically neutral particles of zero or near-zero mass that could carry away energy and momentum. 43. The memory on a card can be reprogrammed about a million times; failure rates are virtually negligible, and the cost of the smart card is comparable to that of a phonecard. 44. Thus the failure of a tungsten-filament light bulb is primarily due to evaporation, with its attendant increase in vapour pressure. 45. Failure to recognize this would lead one to treat the property "goodness" as if it were a characteristic of John in the same way that the property "tallness" is a characteristic of John. Such failure results in philosophical confusion. 46. Cruelty to animals can amount to any of several offences, including failure to take action to alleviate an animal's suffering. 47. Some of these price increases were to a large extent the result of natural conditions that have resulted in crop failures or crop surpluses. 48. Informal fal­lacies are not mistakes in the formal structure of an argument; rather, they are rooted either in the failure of the evidence to be relevant to the conclusion or in some linguistic ambiguity. 49. The Great Depression, and the failure of democra­tic governments to tackle the consequent economic hardship and mass unemplo­yment, fuelled fascist movements worldwide. 50. If countries do not have high levels of human capital, due to a failure to invest in education, or have unstable political systems, we will find that the potential is not taken up. 51. Thought is considered by instrumentalists to be a method of meeting difficulties, particular­ly the difficulties that arise when immediate, unreflective experience is interrup­ted by the failure of habitual or instinctive modes of reaction to cope with a new situation. 52. Physical immaturity dooms the child's desires to frustration and his or her first step towards adulthood to failure. 53. Fatigue is characterized by the inability to perform physical tasks at one's usual pace or strength, and by a slowing of the thinking processes that may involve failure of memory. 54. Kid­ney failure, previously fatal, is now routinely treated either by a transplant or by long-term treatment with an artificial kidney.