In the above examples it’s impossible to give a word-to-word translation, hence one has to render these words, preserving the general idea but changing the formal image.

Descriptive translation - the meaning of one word in SL is rendered by a group of words in TL.

tollway - скоростная платная магистраль;

water-bed - кровать с матрасом, наполнная водой;

spacewalk - выход в открытый космос;

writing skills- грамотно выражать свои мысли на письме;

listening skills- умение слушать и понимать собеседника;

effective communicator - руководитель должен уметь общаться с людьми.

So we resort to the descriptive way of translation when we need to explain the meaning of the given word in view of the absence of the above phenomena in the TL.

Foot-notes and explanations are introduced into the text by a translator when without that it is completely incoprehensible to the TL reader. E.g.

strawberry shortcake doll – тряпичная кукла ручной работы, одетая в розовое платье;

cabbage patch doll - тряпичная кукла ручной работы, одетая в зеленое платье;

hawk - "ястреб" - политики, выступающие за агрессивность в политике;

dove - "голубь" - политики, выступающие за мирное развитие международных отношений.

One should notice that literal translation is inadmissible. This kind translation deforms either the SL text information or violates the norms of the TL. So the phrase Keep off the grass cannot be translated as Держитесь прочь от травы, here the translation По газонам не ходить will be adequate..

Also one should bare in mind that introducing specifically national phraseology of the TL into the translated version is utterly improper. Say, the translations of Dickens’ works by M.A.Shishmareva abound in the following expressions as "тятенька, ужо, инда, ась, батюшки!, и мы не лыком шиты, тю-тю, ай-люли ", which is totally unacceptable, since it corrupts the backgroung cultural information..

Lecture №2

TYPES OF LEXICAL TRANSFORMATION

The existing models of the translating process are, in fact, based on the same assumptions which we considered in discussing the problem of equivalence, namely, the situational (or referential) models is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation, and the semantic-transformational model postulates the similarity of basic notions and nuclear structures in different languages.

The process of translating consists in the identification of different types of operations performed by the translator. The type of operation is identified by comparing the SL text and the TL text. Such operations include all types of lexical transformation involving certain semantic changes. As a result, the meaning of a word or word combination in SL may be more specific and detailed, more general or somewhat modified as a way of discovering an appropriate equivalent in TL.

There are several types of lexical transformations.

Differentiation of Meaning is the choice of an appropriate equivalent which gives a contextually more exact description of the word in TL. In such cases a generic notion is substituted by a specific notion.

The Englosh word meal denotes “завтрак”, “обед” and ”ужин”. A separate word with such a meaning does not exist in the Russian Language. лексики. So in translation one usually has to make a choice between more specific notions comprised by the word meal. E.g. If one has to miss a meal, what comfort in the knowledge that many others had to miss it too? (J.Galsworthy) - Если нечего есть, разве утешает сознание, что и другие остались без обеда?

In this case the choice of the version “обед” for the translation of the word meal is mostly optional. At times the context itself determines the choice of the actual word. At seven o’clock a dull meal was served in the oak panelled dining room. Here we use the word “обед” to achieve adequacy in translation.

A number of words: don’t have a Russian word with the same meaning. you (ты, вы, Вы); power (власть, сила способность), associate (соратник, сообщник, пособник), path (путь, дорога, тропа, тропинка, магистраль, трасса, автострада, тракт, большак, линия, направление, провод, ход, маршрут, поездка, путешествие, вояж, стезя, курс и т.д.).

Drugstore– аптека, is not exactly a drugstore since there they also sell such items as magazines, soft-drinks, ice-cream, etc. A particular context will help to identify a specific meaning of the word: i.e. to explode a bomb – взорватьбобму, to explode a myth – развеятьмиф.

Detailing Technique (Concretization) is the choice of a more specific word in translation which gives a more detailed description idea than does the word in SL. It is based on the fact that English often makes use of general terms to describe very definite objects or actions. The following sentence refers an intruder who had suddenly burst into the room where she was pensively looking into fire: “My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner (Ch.Dickens)”. An attempt to use regular Russian equivalents for such general English verbs as “to leave”, “to go ” will produce a ludicrous Russian phrase like this: “Матушка оставила свое кресло и пошла за него в угол”.

To cope with the problem a contextual substitute may be created by using the detailing technique, i.e. by describing how the woman performed those actions instead of just naming them, e.g.: Взволнованная матушка вскочила со своего кресла и забилась в угол позади него.

Detailing technique is very often referred to English verbs:

To go – идти пешком, ехать, лететь (to go on foot, to go by bus, to go by plane);

To be – висеть, стоять, лежать, валяться, болеть, работать, учиться. (The clock is on the wall. The table is in the room. The book is on the table. A piece of chalk is in the corner. He is in bed. He is in business. He is at Oxford.).

A wide-spread mistakes about translators can be like it can be seen from the following dialogue.

• Well, Bill, I have three things on my mind.

• And, John, I have two more things on my mind.

Here it will be completely inappropriate to translate the word thing as “вещь”, the words “идея,. мысль” would be right.

And he had another drink – он заказал еще стаканик виски.

GENERALIZATION

Generalization is the procedure opposite to the above-mentioned one, i.e. the use of an equivalent with a more general meaning, which is so common in translation from English into Russian, e.g.: “I packed my two Gladstones” “Я упаковала свои два чемодана.” Gladstone is the name of the company, manufacturing big-sized travelling trunks. Another example: “Water, will you give me a Cleenex, please?” which means “Не дадите ли мне салфетку?”.

For obvious reason the translator preferred a generic name to the specific name of the kind of a suitcase or a napkin that the Russian reader is infamiliar with.

The English usually name the exact height of a person: “He is six feet three tall”. “Он шести футов росту”, “Он 190.5 см росту”. A preferable translation here will be “Он очень высокого роста”, since the indication of the exact figure of the height would be superfluous and inadequate for the. reader.

Consider the following examples “Ronald Reagan has always been a Palm Stream guy”. “Он принадлежал к богатому сословию.” Palm Stream is an exclusive place in California. Basing on that, try your hand at translating the following phrases.

When a youth he was associated with Bellow & Mailer (junior league upper class social group);

John put on a Dunhill suit for that important party ( a very expensive suit);

As rich as Baruch (financier);

To avoid a Lakehurst effect (dirigible was on fire in 1927 – an unexpected collapse);

He was as shrewd as (Edward E.) Murrow ( news announcer);

Her voice was a poor imitation of Lena Horn (a black woman singer with a powerful voice);

Don’t be a Tom Mix (a cow boy movie star);

To think of Valhalla (heaven according to the Viking mythology);

Her voice was a poor imitation of Lena Horn (a black woman-singer with a powerful voice);

He was an average Joe (Joe – cf. Ваня);

Give me some packs of Sweet’n Low (low calorie suger substitute);

He downed the Bourbon (whisky).

For her week-end she took two Ziplocs (brand freezer begs) full of Fannie May(s) (kitchen pure milk fresh chocolate candies) & fudges (помадка, выдумка, стряпня).

Another type of lexical transformations is often called “modulation”. It involves the creation of an equivalent by replacing a unit in SL with a TL unit, the meaning of which can be logically deduced from it and which is just another way of referring to the same object or an aspect of the same situation. It is also called “semantic development”. In these cases the substitute often has a cause–and–effect relationship with the original.

E.g. “He answered the phone.” – “Он снял трубку”.

Here the same action refers to identical reality, as a telephone call cannot be answered unless one picks up the receiver. Both the texts give information about the same, or, as one sometimes says, they express the same idea “using different words”.

“Do you need a window or an aisle?” This means that the booking clerk inquires whether the traveller wants a seat by the window or near the aisle. Also, “We have one corner seat in a non-smoker, facing the engine, one back to the engine”. Try to translate that using modulation.

Finally, there is a group of transformations which ensure the required degree of equivalence by a number of changes of both lexical and grammatical nature. They involve a different point of view and other semantic modifications wherever a direct translation of a SL unit proves impossible . A typical example of such a procedure is the so – called antonymous translation describing the situation, as it were, from the opposite point of view and rendering an affirmative SL structure by a negative TL one or vice versa:

E.g. John, I am not kidding. – Джон, я говорю серьезно. In this particular example we see that the negative structure of the English sentence is transformed into the Russian positive sentence. Cf. “Джон, я не шучу. Also:

The door was not unbolted. – Дверь была на засове.

Businessmen do not cross their fingers. Бизнесмены должны быть верны своему слову.

I don’t dislike you. – Вы мне нравитесь.

In conclusion, there is one more way to achieve adequacy in translation, that is compensation technique which is a deliberate introduction of some additional elements at the same or an earlier stage of the text. For instance, Eliza in B.Shaw’s “Pygmalion” makes a mistake typical of the speech of an uneducated person: “I’m nothing to you – not so much as them slippers ”. And Professor Higgins corrects her saying: “those slippers”. The linguistic error in the episode is untranslatable and its loss makes this dialogue meaningless. But the loss can be compensated for by introducing a mistake and its correction – at a point where everything is correct in the original but where an uneducated Russian speaker is likely to make it. As a result in the translation Eliza says: “Я для вас ничто, хуже вот этих туфлей”. And Pr.Higgins corrects her saying “туфель”.

The compensation method is often used to render the stylistic or emotional implications of the original. Consider the following example: My daddy is coming tomorrow on a nairplane.

When translating the sentence from Mark Twain’s “Kings and Cabbages” “He said he had come for me, and informed me that he was a page.”.

“Go ‘long,” I said, “you ain’t more than a paragraph,”

It is clear that the reply would be meaningless but for the play upon the words: “page” and “paragraph”. The same is true about its translation which will be unintelligible unless the play on words is duly reproduced in TL. “Он сказал, что послан за мною и то глава пажей. – Какая ты глава, ты одна строчка! – сказал я ему”.