posobie-text

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There are some substantial differences in grammar structure and word order translating from Russian into English. Here are some example sentences of the most common cases.

1)	В этой статье описаны новые	1)	The paper describes (discusses) new
	методы.		methods.
2)	На пленке создается изображение.	2)	The film produces an image.
3)	Описана система, в которой ис-	3)	A system which makes use of the
	пользуется электрический способ		electric method of detecting is
	детектирования.		described.

The final sentences of abstracts or summaries often contain the following words and collocations: conclude — приходить к заключению (к выводу); make, draw, reach a conclusion, come to a conclusion that… — делать заключение (вывод) относительно…; it is concluded that… — приходить к выводу, что…; lead to a conclusion, make it possible to conclude that…, concerning, as to… — приводить к заключению, давать возможность заключить, что…; from the results it is concluded that… — на основании полученных результатов приходим к выводу; it may be noted that… — можно отметить, что…; it may be stated that… — можно утверждать, что…; thus, therefore, consequently, as a result — таким образом, следовательно, в результате.

Examples:

1)Был сделан вывод, что проводимость p-типа влияет на уменьшение концентрации.

2)Делается общий вывод относительно равновесной формы кристаллов.

3)В результате (на основании) изучения горных пород были сделаны практические выводы.

1)It was concluded that the p-type conduction resulted in a decrease in concentration.

2)A general conclusion is made concerning (as to) the equilibrium shape of crystals.

3)As a result of rocks studies some practical conclusions were made.

For writing summaries it is sometimes required to give some technical recommendations or advice after testing equipment or carrying out experimental works. For this purpose the following verbs and phrases can be used: propose, suggest, recommend — предлагать, рекомендовать; make a suggestion — делать (вносить) предложение; make a suggestion as to how (when, where, what etc.) — делать предложение в отношении того, как (когда, где, что и т. д.); it is suggested that (smth.) (should) be done — предлагается (что-либо)

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сделать; it is necessary to do (smth.) — необходимо сделать (что-либо); need — быть необходимым.

Examples:

1)Предлагается (рекомендуется) еще один метод обработки руды.

2)Рекомендуется новый метод очистки нефти.

3)Необходимо изучить это явление более детально.

Необходимо, чтобы это явление было изучено более детально. Необходимо более детальное изучение этого явления.

1)Another method of ore treatment is proposed (suggested, recommended).

2)A new way of oil purification is recommended (suggested).

3)It is necessary that a more thorough study of the phenomenon should be performed

General recommendations for composing abstracts or summaries

An abstract should be a small paragraph in length, 3–5 sentences (it is usually about from 50 to 100 words) and be written in third person (no I or me statements in your paragraph).

It should tell your audience:

•The type of source it is (web page, book, magazine article).

•The author’s purpose (inform, persuade).

•The target audience (general public, researchers, students).

•A summary (What it is about?).

•The usefulness of this source compared to your others and what you used it for.

•The timeliness of the source (How recent/old is the information? Does “age” of the source matter based on the type of information it is?)

•The credibility of the author (How do you know you can trust the information? Could it be biased?)

•Other brief comments you’d want someone to know about how valuable/invaluable this source is.

Task 2. Study the example abstract and answer the questions given below:

1.What problem is discussed in the paper?

2.What purposes can the created mathematical model of the transformers’ winding be applied for?

3.How should the solution of the differential mathematical equations be

done?

4.What is the model useful for?

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This paper deals with the surge voltage and the overvoltage in the transformer winding. The created mathematical model of the transformer’s winding in software Mathlab is able to analyze the voltage and the current conditions in the winding, thus allow determining the surge voltage at any time and any point. The solution of the differential mathematical equations should be done by an implicit differential formula, because it is necessary to solve differential mathematical equations with respect to the voltage reflection. That is why the Lax—Wendroff numerical method was used. The model is useful for finding distribution of the overvoltage, including the voltage reflection and the maximal surge voltage in any point of the transmission line and the transformer’ winding.

Task 3. Complete the abstract with active or passive verbs from the box in the appropriate tense.

	deal	produce	depend on	solve	use
	Electromechanical actuators working on the principle of a thermoelasticity
are devices that can 1)		............. extremely large forces at small shifts. These actuators
can 2).............	in quite a number of industrial applications such as for fixing various

bodies (metal workpieces in the course of their machining) and setting accurate positions (laser deflection, microscopes, and robotic systems). The value of the displacement 3)............. the construction, applied materials and source of the current field. The paper 4)............. with the numerical modeling of the device in different operation regimes. Since modeling of the actuator represents a coupled problem characterized by the interaction of electromagnetic field, temperature field, and field of strains and stresses of thermoelastic origin, the examples 5)............. by the FEM-based code COMSOL Multiphysics supplemented with several own scripts and procedures.

Task 4. Read the given abstracts of the scientific articles and choose the most appropriate titles for them.

A. Surface roughness prediction of ground components using a fuzzy logic approach.

B.Optimization of the Cadia Hill Sag Mill circuit.

C.A simplified model for zinc oxide surge arresters.

D.Geotechnical basics in modeling of the soil-structure-interaction due to the substantial re-use of historical foundations and structures.

E.Falconbridge chlorine leach process.

F.Characterization of arsenopyrite oxidizing and its tolerance to arsenite, arsenate, ferrous and ferric iron.

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1.In this paper a model for metal-oxide surge arresters is presented. The main innovation introduced by the paper lays in the simplicity of the criteria proposed for the model parameter identification. Such criteria allow calculating the model parameters directly from the standard data reported in the arrester datasheets with a simple and straightforward procedure. The effectiveness of the model was tested for several arresters of different manufacturer both for Medium Voltage and for High Voltage application. The discharge test results obtained by the manufacturers were compared with the results of simulations performed with the Alternative Transient Program.

2.Two strains of Thiobacillus, T. ferrooxidans and T. thiooxidans, have been isolated from a bacterial inoculum cultivated during a one-year period in a 1001 continuous laboratory pilot for treatment of an arsenopyrite concentrate are discussed in the article. The optimum pH for the growth of both strains has been found in between 1.7 and 2.5. Because of the high metal toxicity in bioleach pulps, the tolerance of T. ferrooxidans and T. thiooxidans with respect to iron and arsenic has been studied.

3.In this paper a total of 16 variables, which are most influential on surface roughness in grinding, are considered. The variables are classified into three groups depending on their significance and effect on surface roughness. A threelayer fuzzy model is used to correlate these variables to surface roughness using the fuzzy rules generated based on experimental observations and recommendations from wheel manufactures. Membership functions, fuzzy rule bases, and a worked example are presented in details to demonstrate the strength of fuzzy logic in modeling such a complex system in an efficient manner.

4.Re-use of historical foundations and structures in many cases is a challenging topic with special respect to geotechnical issues an overview of the motivation for re-use is given and aspects to be considered for planning, design and execution are explained. Some of the typical challenges arising from the sustainable re-use of historical buildings are illustrated with three German projects. The place of the German parliament, the “Reichstag”-building has to be mentioned as the most important and successful prototype for the re-use both for historical foundation and structure.

Task 5. Read the abstract and find 5 mistakes in it. Correct the mistakes.

Recently, there is a significant interest in practical application of renewable sources for energy production in the European countries. This interest leads to promotion of utilization of local biomass sources. Biomass gasification in downdraft gasifier with further gas cleaning and combustion in internal combustion engine considered to be an acceptable concept for cogeneration units with capacity up to 300kW, especially for companies with large resources of waste woodworking materials.

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The article describe experience with operation of small cogeneration unit consisting of a modified Imbert gasifier connected to IC motors with 100 kW electrical capacity. Waste wood lumber cuttings with moisture content in the range of 16–36% was used as a fuel and air was used as the gasification agent. The gasifier were able of long time operation and produced a combustible gas with lower heating value in the range of 5.3–5.6 MJ/m3 with very low tar content (<0,2 g/m3). The gas composition and the tar content in the raw gas were dependent on the fuel moisture content. The cleaning efficiency measured and discussed in the paper.

Task 6. Translate the abstracts from Russian into English paying attention to passive grammar structures.

A)В 1998 году на руднике Cadia Hill компании Newcrest Mining в Австралии были запущены две крупнейшие в мире шаровые мельницы, а также мельница полу-самоизмельчения. После года введения в эксплуатацию мельниц обнаружилось, что проект выполнен лучше, чем ожидалось. Для оценки целесообразности повторения подобных проектов в перспективе, необходимо соотнести эксплуатационные расходы и стоимость продукции. Несмотря на положительные результаты проведения общей статистики проекта, ввод в эксплуатацию фабрики Cadia не был лишен производственных и механических проблем. Данная статья посвящена изложению возникших проблем и способам их решения.

B)В геологическом разрезе любого месторождения полезных ископаемых можно выделить ряд пород обладающих различными прочностными и деформационными свойствами, оказывающие влияние на неравномерное распределение полей напряжений в массиве. В статье описаны результаты исследования закономерностей распределения напряженно-деформирован- ного состояния выработки массива горных пород. Представлена расчетная схема конечно-элементной модели.

UNIT 2. Coal Mining

Task 1. Read these headings for the reading passage about German hard coal mining quickly and answer question Q.

List of headings:

0.Coal preparation and handling E

1.Industry and structure

2.The future

3.Production equipment

4.Geology and coal quality

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5.Production and costs

6.Mining methods

Q: The purpose of the article is:

A.present a problem and a solution.

B.present industrial structure and its cost.

C.describe industrial structure and its operational effects.

D.describe geological structure and mining methods.

Task 2. Read the text quickly and match the headings 1–6 with the paragraphs A–G in the passage below.

HARD COAL MINING, GERMANY

Hard coal mining in Germany, centred on the Ruhr, Saar and Ibbenbüren coalfields, was amalgamated into Deutsche Steinkohle AG (DSK) at the beginning of 1999. DSK is a wholly owned subsidiary of the RAG group.

A.All of Germany’s hard coal resources are Carboniferous in age. While the Saar and Ibbenbüren basins represent remnants of larger coalfields, the Ruhr contains massive resources that dip towards the North Sea.

By the end of 2006, just nine mines were left at work, with a further mine scheduled for closure in both 2009 and 2010. Lying at a depth of around 1,200 m in the north of the active coalfield, the strata have been fragmented by major regional folding and faulting. Conditions in the Saar basin are more complex than in the Ruhr.

The high-quality coking, gas and steam coals typically contain 6–9% ash, and less than 1% sulphur, although some seams require extensive washing before sale. The Niederberg mine and the Ibbenbüren deposit contain anthracite.

B.At the end of 2000, DSK operated 15 deep mines, three in the Saar basin, one at Ibbenbüren and the remainder in the Ruhr region. By the end of 2006, just nine mines were left at work.

The reduction in capacity has been achieved through both closures and amalgamations between neighbouring mines, with a concomitant fall in the industry’s workforce from 58,100 in 2000 to 35,400 at the end of 2006.

C.In the Ruhr coalfield, mine development has taken place northwards with new shafts for ventilation and handling men and materials being sunk progressively further north. The depth of working has also increased with time, giving a current average production depth of 920 m.

All of DSK’s operations are based around longwall mining, using both shearers and ploughs for production. Most mines operate in several seams, with each unit operating several faces. A total of 43 faces was operated in 1999. An

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increasing number of longwalls are controlled remotely from surface, high levels of automation allowing saleable output of up to 20,000 t/d per face.

Longwall faces of up to 400m are now in service, the longest in the world having been installed at the Freidrich-Heinrich/Rheinland mine in 1997. Seams worked range in thickness from 1.0 to 4.8 m, with ploughs being used in the thinner seams and shearers in thicker applications.

D.The RAG group includes the major underground equipment manufacturer, Deutsche Bergbau Technik (DBT), from which most of the Ruhr coalfield longwall equipment has been obtained. Shearers remain the special preserve of Eickhoff, while SaarTech has developed face support and transport systems suitable for the more difficult mining conditions in the Saar coalfield.

While, in the past, equipment was specified on a face-by-face basis, DSK is now adopting a policy of standardisation of equipment wherever possible.

E.DSK operates washing plants at all of its mines, to produce saleable steam and coking coal products. The industry generates some 10–12 Mt/y of discard washery waste, some of which is stowed back underground while the remainder is stored in landscaped surface dumps.

DSK transports some 60 Mt/y of coal and coke, using its own 450 km-long rail system and dedicated river ports, trans-shipment points and intermediate storage facilities.

F.In early 2007, the German government announced that subsidies would be phased out completely by 2018. Germany’s hard coal mines produced 41.3 Mt in 1998, 39.2 Mt in 1999, 33.3 Mt in 2000 and 27.1 Mt in 2001. By 2006, their combined output had fallen to 20.7 Mt. Production costs are three or four times the world average, Ruhr coal costing an average of around $120/t.

The formation of DSK was largely dependent on agreement for the continuation of state subsidies until 2005, the annual payment reducing from $4.9 bn in 1998 to $2.9 bn in 2005. Of the 25.9 Mt supplied by DSK to its customers in 2005, 19.5 Mt went for thermal electricity generation and 6 Mt to the German steel industry for coke production, with 400,000 t being supplied to other users.

G.In early 2007, the German government announced that subsidies would be phased out completely by 2018, thereby clearing the way for a stock-market flotation of RAG since it would no longer have the social and economic liabilities generated by the country’s hard-coal sector. Whether this will mark the end of deep mining in Germany remains to be seen.

It also calls into question DSK’s plans, announced in 2005, to develop a new underground mine, Donar, to produce 3Mt/y of coking coal. Citing the high world market price for coke as justification for the project, the company intended to use private-sector finance for its development. Located near Hamm, in the eastern

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Ruhr coalfield, the mine would employ around 2,500 people when and if it comes on stream.

Task 3. Read the article above again and write your abstract to it using the words and phrases from Unit 1.

Task 4. Look at the title and subtitle of the article “Mining In Britain In Roman Times”. What do you think is the main problem discussed in the text? Circle the appropriate letter A–D.

The main problem discussed in the article is:

A.mining silver and gold.

B.historical facts of mining metal ore.

C.Roman contribution in developing mining of metal ore in Britain.

D.Roman methods of mining silver and gold.

Task 5. Read the article “Mining In Britain In Roman Times” quickly and check your answer to Task 4.

Task 6. Do you think the author of this article is British or American? How do you know?

MINING IN BRITAIN IN ROMAN TIMES

Introduction

Britain was a land rich in mineral deposits just waiting to be mined. Those were the thoughts of Emperor Claudius and were part of the prelude to the invasion of Britain.

Britain was indeed abundant in metal ore, one of the main consumables in the Roman Empire. It was not just iron and lead the Romans wanted to mine, there was also gold, copper and tin. Lead was the main requirement as it could be used for water pipes, guttering and, once liquefied in a furnace, mixed with tin to make pewter. But the Romans had a more important use for lead. They could extract the silver from the ore to make much needed coins and tableware.

The lead mines and extracting silver

Within six years of the invasion of 43 AD, the Mendip lead mines were in full production. By 70 AD, Britain was the biggest supplier of lead and silver to the empire. It reached such a level that the Spanish lodged a complaint with the emperor as their lead trade had fallen to such a low level. The emperor responded by setting limits for Britain’s production, but it didn’t affect production. Lead was in such high demand that the number of mines actually increased despite the limitations and output rose. New mines opened and a large part of Wales and North-West England was being mined for lead by the end of the century.

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The aqueduct at Chesters (Hardian’s Wall)

Originally lead mines were under direct control of the Roman authorities, such was their desire to ensure as few people as possible were involved in lead mining. They believed the more companies that were involved in mining, the greater the opportunity for theft and fraud. Lead was so much a base necessity in the Empire, they also wanted to ensure that they was little chance of any unrest that could spoil production targets.

Eventually the Romans capitulated and in about 60 D, around the time of the Boudiccan rebellion, they agreed to hand over responsibility to two trusted agents, Gaius Nipius Ascanius and Tiberius Claudius Triferna. This is known as their insignia appears on lead ingots that appeared after this time.

Under the control of these two businessmen, the lead mines were leased out to private companies on payment of a levy. In return they had to pass over half the lead mined to the government’s imperial procurator to be given to the government. The remaining half they could sell on the market. Most of the lead was sold to the biggest user of lead, the government.

The Roman Empire was rife with corruption, and mining was no exception. Four lead ingots bearing the mark of Triferna have been found hidden underground at Green Ore in the Mendips. When analysed, it was found the silver had been extracted from three bars and the fourth still had the silver deposits intact. Despite stringent controls imposed by the Romans, it seems he did manage to make a tidy income from his illicit actions. He was either brave or foolish, as his actions were punishable by execution or a life of toil in the mines. Execution in Roman times was carried out in the public amphitheatre. The main method was for the victim to be eaten alive by wild animals.

Mining was not a job anyone volunteered for. So the mines were manned by slaves, criminals and prisoners of war. Those who resisted a life of mining were thrown into a much more dangerous and short lived occupation. They became gladiators.

Lead mining was not as hazardous as gold mining as lead was taken from open cast mines on the surface. Even so it was still harsh work and about 12% of all miners died each year because of their daily labours.

Extracting the silver

The Romans taught the British lead workers techniques for extracting the silver from the lead ore.

Firstly the lead was smelted in a furnace to remove the lead from the ore. Then the lead was removed and heated in a shallow hearth. Powerful hand operated bellows were used to raise the temperature to about 1,100°C and, at the same time, cause the silver to separate from the lead. It was at this point the silver was dawn off and poured into ingot moulds. This process was known as cupellation.

The remaining led was smelted again to remove any impurities, after which it was poured into ingots and left to cool.

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Mining the gold

It’s not a well known fact, but Britain does have deposits of gold in its landscape. Panning for gold in alluvial gravel had been carried out in streams in Cornwall and Scotland for hundreds of years before the Romans arrived. The large scale mining of gold was instigated at the only gold mine in Britain in Dolaucothi, Wales. The works can still be seen near the village of Pumpsaint.

When the Romans conquered Wales in 70 AD, they immediately set to work building reservoirs on mountains in the Cothi valley. A seven mile long aqueduct was built to move the water into these man made lakes. Then all together the water was released down the mountainside which created an avalanche consisting of water, plant life and top soil. It was a massive project and must have taken many months to complete. The end result was worthwhile. Once the surface layer had been removed, there was just bare rock and exposed seams of gold.

Excavating the gold

They wasted no time in putting the slave labour to work digging the shafts that followed the seams deep into the mountains. Initially the gold was extracted by the open cast method where it was dug from the surface. As they when followed the seam deeper into the rock other methods had to be used.

The rock was tough so the Romans used a process of fire-setting to break up the rock and so make it easier to remove. Fire-setting was the process of building a bonfire of wood in the shaft and raising the temperature to a high degree. Then cold water was poured down the shaft. This sudden drop in temperature on one part of the rock caused it to crack violently and break away from rock beneath which was still extremely hot.

The miners than began to use picks to break this rock up into pieces that would fit into a large wooden container which was hauled up to the surface. This vessel was also used to transport the diggers down the shaft and back up after the day’s work.

This work was hazardous in many ways. The shafts could be over 100 ft (33 m) deep so the miners often worked in near total darkness, the only light being from an oil lamp the miner carried. Miners lives were short. As they dug, choking rock dust swirled around them getting into their lungs and gradually building up deposits. This in turn led to fatal chest problems. Many fell on the uneven surface and broke limbs and there was always the danger of the shaft collapsing and burying them under hundreds of tons of rock. Added to this was the danger of flooding from porous rock seeping water into the shaft. Other slaves would send down buckets on ropes to collect this water and bring it to the surface for disposal a safe distance away.

Extracting the gold

Once on the surface the rocks would be placed on to the floor and pummeled with heavy sledgehammers until they were broken into small fragments. These pieces were then placed into a large wooden container and water would be poured