12. Ways of expression of grammatical meaning

They may be expressed:

1. with the help of affixes

2. with the help of internal vocalic or consonantal changes in the root (take – took, can-could, food-feed, иду-шел, беру-брал)

3. sometimes grammatical meanings may be expressed by reduplication when a part of a root or a stem is repeated to indicate some grammatical concepts, usually plurality or intensity or as a means of emphasis which is characteristic of English and Russian. Like да да , нет нет , добрый добрый. In English it is also typical of child’s speech like a red red apple, blue blue sky.

4. Grammatical meanings may be expressed not only with the help of a word but by means of relational words which accompany presentational words.

Among relational words we distinguish:

1. Prepositions which express relations between parts of a sentence. Prepositions play an important role serving to differentiate relations which are often indicated by case flections like in Russian ( у окна, из окна, ) and they are more important in languages with no case flexion like English ( at the window, from the window).

2. Conjunctions serve to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses. This connection is realized either by coordination or subordination. Accordingly conjunctions are divided into coordinative and, but, и , но, and subordinative when, that, unless.

3. Articles. The first grammatical function of the article is to signify the noun, the second – to denote whether the thing is known to the listener or not. The third – articles show the number, historically the articles appeared in the result of the tendency to indicate the number of a noun.

4. Auxiliary words. They have no independent meaning of their own but help to build analytical forms of the word. In English there are auxiliaries of tense – shall will, aspect – to be, voice – to be, auxiliaries are characteristic of an analytical type of morphological structure. In the majority of languages the verbs to be to have are used as auxiliaries.

5. Finally some form (relational) words are used to express grammatical meanings, but their grammatical function is not clearly cut. in English like Girlfriend. Boyfriend, hecat, shecat when there are no indicators of gender.

6. Particles. (частицы) in Russian they are used to denote the category of mood, ( сидел бы). In English particle to indicates infinitive.

some other ways of expressing the grammatical meanings.

Word order is especially important in languages with no case flexions – for analytic type of language.

Supplitive forms which express different grammatical meanings – хорошо – лучше

13. Grammatical and typological categories.

Historically take its origine from ancient Indian grammar by Panini. He described his native lang. Sanskrit. He was the 1^st to put a sharp dividing line btw words and nouns. This idea of classification was developed by ancient greek philosopher Aristotle.

When describing any gramm. struct. he described 3 genders. If there was an opposition they described grammat. category.

cat(unmarked) – cats (marked)Typological categories differ from grammatical. We may speak about typological category even if it is not expressed morphologically. Typ. cat is : - inter language; - inter level; - inter class

The grammatical category expresses a generalized grammatical meaning. This general meaning is present in a set of word forms, each of which has its own individual meaning, which is a particular case of the general one.