14. Grammatical functions of the article. The category of determination in Rus.

A/An: Substitute for One or Any

• This is the most common use of indefinite articles. You should use a or an before any singular countable noun that is indefinite. For example, you say, "This morning I saw a dog." Use a because the dog is not your dog nor the only dog in town, it is just one dog that you happened to see.

A/An: Frequency or Allotment

• You say, "The show costs $20 a person," or "I visit my relatives twice a year." Using a or an in this way denotes frequency or allotment.

A/An: One Single

• Using a or an in this way is a little old-fashioned, but you can still see and hear it used. A or an can be used in negative sentences to state emphatically "a single". For example, you say, "We had not a thing to eat," or "There was not a tree in sight."

The: Known Things

• This is the most common use of the. Use the when talking about definite things that your audience already knows about or that are obvious. For example, you say, "I spilled my drink on the carpet." Use the because you did not spill your drink on just any carpet; it was a specific carpet in a specific place that your audience knows about.

The: Things Already Mentioned

• Use the to refer to something that you have already mentioned. For example, you say, "I saw a dog this morning," when you first mention the dog but later you should say, "The dog looked hungry." Every time you refer to the dog after this, you should use the.

The: Something Unique

• Use the to refer to things that are unique. For example, you say, "I saw the Queen of England." There is only one Queen of England. If you say, "I saw a Queen of England," you are implying that there are many Queens of England.

The: Superlatives

• Use the with superlatives. For example, you say, "This is the most expensive steak I have ever eaten," or, "Russia is the biggest country in the world." You use the for both of these examples because you are talking about single, unique and specific things.

15. Typology of category of Gender

The basic cat. Every lang-s distinguishes btw. – males; - femalesIn Rus. gender is expressed morphologically that’s with the help of flexions. There are 3 genders in Rus.: - famine (with flexions а-я) ; - masculine; - neuter (flexions o-e).genders correspond to nouns он, оно, она.Classification on nouns into genders is deprive of any logics. Sometimes different nouns denoting the same objects belong to different genders. (девушка – das mädchen). Nouns denoting the same things may belong to different genders. (береза, сосна, дуб).The oldest way to express gender is with the help of words (lexical).We have special words denoting males and females: husband, wife, man, woman.In eng. gender is not expressed morphologically. Except some examples. waiter, waitress, actor, actress. In other cases it can be expressed lexically girl-friend, boyfriend, she cat, he cat.Nouns denoting profession may be referred to men as well as to women, they may be of masculine or feminine gender depending on situation. In both lang-s there are words which may denote either male or female: - человек – ребенок, мальчик – девочка. There are words in both lang-s denoting domestic animals (hen – cock).But in older practice they were not used except some special purposes. In Rus. gender may be indicated by special morphemes, nouns (тель – щик – чик ) musculine. Nouns ость- радость – feminine.

The category of gender is basic in nouns. This category differs in English and Russian. In Russian it is expressed morphologically , there are 3 genders feminine, masculine and neuter. They correspond to pronounce он она оно. These pronouns may replace the noun. On the whole the category of gender is deprived of any logics. One and the same noun in different languages may belong to different genders. Вода is feminine in Russian, in german Wasser is neuter gender. Девочка feminine, das Madchen –neuter. Words denoting the same things belong to different genders. Дуб сосна, тюльпан – роза, nouns denoting persons are referred either to feminine or masculine gender depending upon the sex of the person. in both languages nouns denoting male beings belong to masculine gender, nouns denoting female beings are of feminine gender. Brother sister son daughter. In all this cases the category of gender is expressed lexically. It is the most ancient way to express the category of gender. Some nouns have the same root in masculine and feminine gender. Gender in this cases is expressed with the help of endings (flexions). Студент-студентка. The same examples we may find in English though they do not occur often. Waiter-waitress, conductor-conductress, actor-actress. Nouns denoting occupation or profession may be referred to men and women and they may be of feminine and masculine gender depending on the situation. Doctor Ivanova, Pr.Braun. in both languages there are words which may denote either male or female beings, человек, child, baby, ребенок, дитя. In both languages we have words denoting domestic animals of both sexes like –бык-корова, овца-баран, курица-петух. Ship-ram, cow-cox. But in oral practice only one word is usually used to denote animals. In English the category of gender may be expressed with the help of formal words, or special indicators like she-goat, woman-doctor, a boy-girl-friend.