Bilety2kurs / Obschaya_lingvokultura

However, the Church itself still remained catholic. Henry VIII disapproved of the ideas of the European Reformation.

The middle class wanted simplified ceremonies held in the native language. That gave rise to the development of the Protestant movement in England.

One of the key figures in Protestant was William Tyndale, who is famous for his translation of the Bible directly from Hebrew and Greek texts. This text had a great influence on English language and culture.

In fact, he was not the first one who translated the Bible into common English: for example, John Wycliffe had already translated the book into Middle English from Latin. (1382)

One more translation - King James Bible (The Authorised Version) was completed in 1611. The translation was done by 47 scholars. The main goal was to fix the problems and mistakes in the previous translations.

27. Crown and Parliament. Three types of monarchy.

The English Parliament was first called in 1265 by Simon de Montfort, during the Civil War. The barons wanted to protect their rights, so they used Parliament to influence the monarch.

The House of Commons was established in 1341 to create new relationship between the king and the growing middle class.

The main functions of Parliament:to agree to taxes

to approve to the lawsto advise the Crown

The Tudor dynasty established the absolute monarchy in England: after the War of Roses and Hundred Year's War the aristocracy was weakened, so Henry VII created a new aristocracy out of bourgeoisie. He established a strong royal power, and his successor, Henry VIII, declared the independence of the Anglican Church.

The rule of his daughter, Queen Elizabeth, was the peak of absolutism.

But eventually the tension between the Crown and Parliament grew. In the 16th century Parliament only met when the King needed it.

The English Civil War (1642-1651) was an armed conflict between the King (Charles I) and the Parliament. One of the reasons for it was that Charles avoided calling Parliament and collected taxes without its permission (though the main economic power was in the hands of middle-class, e.g. merchants). Despite the Restoration of monarchy in 1660, the age of absolute rule was over.

1688 – the Glorious Revolution, Parliament called William of Orange to rule the country. In was a turning point in transition from a the personal rule to parliamentary monarchy.

Constitutional monarchy is a form of democratic government in which a monarch acts as a nonpolitical head of state within the boundaries of a constitution. Their power is restricted and the head of the government is a member of legislature.

Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch has absolute power among his or her people.

Feudalism is a European system based upon fixed relations of lord to vassal and all lands held in fee (as from the king), and requiring of vassal-tenants homage and service. The power is shared between the monarch and the nobles

28. The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England, was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when the life of ordinary people was changed dramatically forever. It was a time of numerous inventions, so industry developed so fast that society could barely keep up.

Before the Industrial Revolution, life for most people in England was a farming and rural lifestyle. Communications and travel were limited. Manufacturing was done by natural means, such as windmills. Life was hard, and people worked hard to pay the rent and put food on the table. Education was not available for ordinary people.

However, there were major developments and inventions in agriculture, manufacture and travel that eventually spread throughout Europe and North America. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the early 18th century for the following reasons:

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1.England had experienced all of the forerunners of industrialization in the previous century: an agricultural revolution, cottage industry, and an expanded commercial revolution. These developments had built surplus capital and an infrastructure (shipping, banking, insurance, joint stock companies).

2.England already had a handcraft textile industry using wool, but with the availability of cotton from overseas markets as an alternative raw material.

3.The scientific revolution in England prepared the way for new inventions to be applied to industry.

4.A spreading shortage of wood (used for energy, for shipbuilding and construction) stimulated a search for alternatives.

5.England was rich in supplies of coal for energy and iron for construction.

6.England had a long, irregular coastline with many rivers and natural harbors which provided easy transportation by water to many areas.

7.England's population grew rapidly in the 18th century, providing a labour force for industry.

Industry and manufacturing that was once all by hand could now be done by machine. It all started with the textile industry and spread to other products. Factories were built and steam powered machinery increased the manufacture. Enormous amounts of coal had to be burned to make enough steam to power the machines. Increased products meant that more goods needed to be transported, so canals were built, and roads and railways improved.

Towards the middle of the 19th century, steam-powered ships and railways meant progress got faster. Then later in the century, electricity and the development of the internal combustion engine increased the pace at which goods were manufactured and transported.

During the industrial revolution, new technology brought many changes. For example:

Canals were built to allow heavy goods to be moved easily where they were needed.

The steam engine became the main source of power. It replaced horses and human labour.

Cheap iron and steel became mass-produced. Steel replaced wood as material for building many of the new

things.

Machine tools became commonplace. Things could now be mass-produced in factories instead of making them by hand.

Seed drills and other agricultural machinery brought a British agricultural revolution. Fewer people were needed to work in farming, so many moved to towns and found new jobs in the factories although many of the new jobs were very harsh and dangerous.

Railways were built all around England and then the world. They carried freight and passengers much more quickly and cheaply than before.

Steamships began to replace sailing ships. They could be larger and faster than sailing ships and did not depend on wind and weather.

The spinning Jenny and power loom made it easy to mass-produce clothes and fabrics.

The effects of all this rapid change on society was enormous. More and more people left the land and went to towns and cities to work in factories. The growth of the towns couldn't keep up with the number of people pouring into them, and so housing was hard to get and people lived in slums in appalling circumstances.

29. The English Renaissance, its impact on literature. The Elizabethan age

The Elizabethan era was a time associated with Queen Elizabeth I's reign (1558–1603) and is often considered to be the golden age in English history. It was the height of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of English poetry, music and literature.

The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late 15th and early 16th centuries to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. Like most of northern Europe, England saw little of these developments until more than a century later. The beginning of the English Renaissance is often taken, as a convenience, to be 1485, when the Battle of Bosworth Field ended the Wars of the Roses and inaugurated the Tudor Dynasty.

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Renaissance style and ideas, however, were slow to penetrate England, and the Elizabethan era in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance.

England had a strong tradition of literature in the English vernacular, which gradually increased as English use of the printing press became common by the mid 16th century. By the time of Elizabethan literature a vigorous literary culture in both drama and poetry included poets such as Edmund Spenser, whose verse epic The Faerie Queene had a strong influence on English literature but was eventually overshadowed by the lyrics of William Shakespeare, Thomas Wyatt and others. Typically, the works of these playwrights and poets circulated in manuscript form for some time before they were published, and above all the plays of English Renaissance theatre were the outstanding legacy of the period.

The English theatre scene, which performed both for the court and nobility in private performances, and a very wide public in the theatres, was the most crowded in Europe, with a host of other playwrights as well as the giant figures of Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Elizabeth herself was a product of Renaissance humanism trained by Roger Ascham, and wrote occasional poems such as On Monsieur’s Departure at critical moments of her life. Philosophers and intellectuals included Thomas More and Francis Bacon. All the 16th century Tudor monarchs were highly educated, as was much of the nobility, and Italian literature had a considerable following, providing the sources for many of Shakespeare's plays. English thought advanced towards modern science with the Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific Method. The language of theBook of Common Prayer, first published in 1549, and at the end of the period the Authorised Version ("King James Version" to Americans) of the Bible (1611) had enduring impacts on the English consciousness.

So there was growing interest to art and literature and a wonderful flowering of works of famous authors. BUT: the writers of the 18th century recognized the wit of the writers of the 17th c. but their language was viewed as rude and unpolished. So there was a need for correctness. The Age of Correctness began. But this is another story :)

30. Puritanism as the ideology of the English Revolution of the 17th century

The discontent of the middle class with the radical changes of the Reformation lead to a new religious movement – puritanism.

Advocates of puritanism:

stood for elected clergy and against appointed bishops;

condemned idleness, luxury and entertainment;

stood up for modesty and thrift in life and enterprise in business.

Political and social essence of puritanism was against feudals consuming wealth and for the Middle Class producing wealth.

These ideas became a popular feeling and as a way of salvation after physical death was open to everyone. Puritans thought that success in this life was salvation in that life.

In the 17th century it became an ideology which united religious and political opposition to absolute monarchy and then - the ideology of the English Revolution of the 17th century.

31. The English Revolutionthe Civil Wars. Oliver Cromwell.

There were battles between the armies of the Royalists and the Parliamentarian soldiers.

The Parliamentarian army was under command of several members of Parliament. Of these the strongest being a gentleman farmer OLIVER CROMWELL.

He had created a new MODEL ARMY. In the long run, King Charles 1 was captured and executed.

NEW MODEL ARMY.

Instead of country people and gentry Oliver Cromwell invited into the NEW MODEL ARMY educated men who wanted to fight for their beliefs.

From 1649 to 1660 Britain was a republic. Cromwell and his friends got rid of the monarchy, and the House of Lords and the Anglian Church.

From 1653 Britain was governed by Cromwell alone. He became Lord Protector king had had.

Cromwell’s government was by far more severe than the king’s and was unpopular because wanted to use the army to maintain law and order in the kingdom.

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The Restoration.

Charles 2 was invited to return to his kingdom. The republic was over and the laws and the Acts of

Cromwell’s government were cancelled.

The monarchy was restored but 30 years later it was already a constitutional monarchy.

So, THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION WAS ACTUALLYY A VICTORY OF THE MIDDLE CLASS OVER FEUDALS.

The political result of two Civil Wars between Parliament and the Crown: Parliament became more powerful than the king, whose rights were restricted by THE BILL OF RIGHTS (1689).

32. Revolution in Scientific Thinking

The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed views of society and nature. According to traditional accounts, the scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance era and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human body) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution. By the end of the 18th century, the scientific revolution had given way to the "Age of Reflection".

The concept of a scientific revolution taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century, before the French Revolution, in the work of Bailly, who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new.

Advances in science have been termed "revolutions" since the 18th century. In 1747, Clairaut wrote that "Newton was said in his own lifetime to have created a revolution". The word was also used in the preface to Lavoisier's 1789 work announcing the discovery of oxygen. "Few revolutions in science have immediately excited so much general notice as the introduction of the theory of oxygen...Lavoisier saw his theory accepted by all the most eminent men of his time, and established over a great part of Europe within a few years from its first promulgation."

In the 19th century, William Whewell established the notion of a revolution in science itself (or the scientific method) that had taken place in the 15th-16th century. "Among the most conspicuous of the revolutions which opinions on this subject have undergone, is the transition from an implicit trust in the internal powers of man's mind to a professed dependence upon external observation; and from an unbounded reverence for the wisdom of the past, to a fervid expectation of change and improvement."

This gave rise to the common view of the scientific revolution today:

"A new view of nature emerged, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophy and technology and came to be regarded as having utilitarian goals."

It is traditionally assumed to start with the Copernican Revolution (initiated in 1543) and to be complete in the "grand synthesis" of Newton's 1687 Principia. Much of the change of attitude came from Galileo who championed Copernicus and developed the science of motion and Francis Bacon whose "confident and emphatic announcement of a New Era in the progress of science" inspired the creation of scientific societies such as the Royal Society

In the 20th century, Alexandre Koyré introduced the term "Scientific Revolution" centring his analysis on

Galileo, and the term was popularized by Butterfield in his Origins of Modern Science. More recently historians of science have stressed the continuity that can be discerned from the late medieval period and have cast doubt on the inherently progressive nature of science. Much of this reassessment follows the work of Thomas Kuhn whose 1962 work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, emphasized that different theoretical frameworks, such as Einstein's relativity theory and Newton's theory of gravity, which it replaced, cannot be directly compared.

New ideas

The scientific revolution was not marked by any single change. The following new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution, many of which were called revolutions in their own fields:

The replacement of the Earth as center of the universe by heliocentrism.

Deprecation of the Aristotelian theory that matter was continuous and made up of the elements earth, water, air, and fire because its classic rival, atomism, better lent itself to a 'mechanical philosophy' of matter.

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The replacement of the Aristotelian idea that heavy bodies, by their nature, moved straight down toward their natural places; that light bodies, by their nature, moved straight up toward their natural place; and that ethereal bodies, by their nature, moved in unchanging circular motions with the idea that all bodies are heavy and move according to the same physical laws.

Inertia replaced the medieval impetus theory, that unnatural motion ("forced" or "violent" rectilinear motion) is caused by continuous action of the original force imparted by a mover into that which is moved.

The replacement of Galen's treatment of the venous and arterial systems as two separate systems with William Harvey's concept that blood circulated from the arteries to the veins "impelled in a circle, and is in a state of ceaseless motion".

René Descartes with Queen Christina of Sweden.

Many of the important figures of the scientific revolution, however, shared in the Renaissance respect for ancient learning and cited ancient pedigrees for their innovations. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543),[19] Kepler (1571–1630), Newton (1642–1727), and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) all traced different ancient and medieval ancestries for the heliocentric system. In the Axioms Scholium of his Principia, Newton said its axiomatic three laws of motion were already accepted by mathematicians such as Huygens (1629–1695), Wallace, Wren and others. While preparing a revised edition of his Principia, Newton attributed his law of gravity and his first law of motion to a range of historical figures.

All those ancients knew the first law [of motion] who attributed to atoms in an infinite vacuum a motion which was rectilinear, extremely swift and perpetual because of the lack of resistance... Aristotle was of the same mind, since he expresses his opinion thus..., speaking of motion in the void [in which bodies have no gravity and] where there is no impediment he writes: 'Why a body once moved should come to rest anywhere no one can say. For why should it rest here rather than there ? Hence either it will not be moved, or it must be moved indefinitely, unless something stronger impedes it.'

—Isaac Newton, Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton

Although intimations of the concept of inertia are suggested sporadically in ancient discussion of motion, the salient point is that Newton's theory differed from ancient understandings in key ways, such as an external force being a requirement for violent motion in Aristotle's theory.

The geocentric model was nearly universally accepted until 1543 when Nicolaus Copernicus published his book titled De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and was still widely accepted into the next century. At around the same time, the findings of Vesalius corrected the previous anatomical teachings of Galen, which were based upon the dissection of animals even though they were supposed to be a guide to the human body.

Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica, published in 1543. French surgeon Ambroise Paré (c.1510–1590) is considered one of the fathers of surgery; he was a leader in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine, especially the treatment of wounds. Influenced by the works of Italian surgeon and anatomist Matteo Realdo Colombo (c. 1516–1559), the anatomist William Harvey (1578–1657) described the circulatory system. Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and his textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first person to use a microscope to view bacteria.

It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. It is said that the 17th-century French physician Pierre Fauchard (1678–1761) started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry".

Pierre Vernier (1580–1637) was inventor and eponym of the vernier scale, used in measuring devices. Evangelista Torricelli (1607–1647) was best known for his invention of the barometer. Although Franciscus Vieta (1540–1603) gave the first notation of modern algebra, John Napier (1550–1617) invented logarithms, and Edmund Gunter (1581–1626) created the logarithmic scales (lines, or rules) upon which slide rules are based. It was William Oughtred (1575–1660) who first used two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct multiplication and division, and thus is credited as the inventor of the slide rule in 1622.

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. The introduction of his Pascaline in 1645 launched the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then all over the world. The notion of mathematical probability was first initiated by Pascal with his research in the games of chance; his later theory for

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binomial coefficient (or Pascal's Triangle) was used as some of the foundation to Leibniz' infinitesimal calculus. He also made important contributions to the study of fluid and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science.

Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), building on Pascal's work, became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators; he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator, in 1685, and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures.

John Hadley (1682–1744) was mathematician inventor of the octant, the precursor to the sextant. Hadley also developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic objective mirrors for reflecting telescopes, building the first parabolic Newtonian telescope and a Gregorian telescope with accurately shaped mirrors.

Denis Papin, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine. Denis Papin (1647–1712) was best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine. Abraham Darby I (1678–1717) was the first, and most famous, of three generations of the Darby

family who played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. He developed a method of producing high-grade iron in a blast furnace fueled by coke rather than charcoal. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution. Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729) perfected a practical steam engine for pumping water, the Newcomen steam engine. Consequently, he can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution.

In 1672 Otto von Guericke (1602–1686), was the first human on record to knowingly generate electricity using a machine, and in 1729 Stephen Gray (1666–1736) demonstrated that electricity could be "transmitted" through metal filaments. The first electrical storage device was invented in 1745, the so-called "Leyden jar," and in 1749 Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) demonstrated that lightning was electricity. In 1698 Thomas Savery (c.1650–1715) patented an early steam engine.

German scientist Georg Agricola (1494–1555), known as "the father of mineralogy," published his great work De re metallica. Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was credited with the discovery of Boyle's Law. He is also credited for his landmark publication The Sceptical Chymist, where he attempts to develop an atomic theory of matter. The person celebrated as the "father of modern chemistry" is Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) who developed his law of Conservation of mass in 1789, also called Lavoisier's Law. Antoine Lavoisier proved that burning was caused by oxidation, that is, the mixing of a substance with oxygen. He also proved that diamonds were made of carbon and argued that all living processes were, at their heart, chemical reactions. In 1766 Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) discovered hydrogen. In 1774 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) discovered oxygen.

Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) refined the binary system, foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures.

German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels (1489-1534) and Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus). Valerius Cordus (1515–1554) authored one of the greatest pharmacopoeias and one of the most celebrated herbals in history, Dispensatorium (1546).

In his Systema Naturae, published in 1767, Carl von Linné (1707–1778) catalogued all the living creatures into a single system that defined their morphological relations to one another: the Linnean classification system. He is often called the "Father of Taxonomy." Georges Buffon (1707–1788) was perhaps the most important of Charles

Darwin's predecessors. From 1744 to 1788, he wrote his monumental Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, which included everything known about the natural world up until that date.

Along with the inventor and microscopist Robert Hooke (1635–1703), Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), English scientist and astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742) was trying to develop a mechanical explanation for planetary motion. Halley's star catalogue of 1678 was the first to contain telescopically determined locations of southern stars.

Many historians of science have seen other ancient and medieval antecedents of these ideas. It is widely accepted that Copernicus's De revolutionibus followed the outline and method set by Ptolemy in his Almagest and

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employed geometrical constructions that had been developed previously by the Maragheh school in his heliocentric model, and that Galileo's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus rejected earlier medieval analyses of motion, rejecting by name; Averroes, Avempace, Jean Buridan, and John Philoponus (see Theory of impetus).

The standard theory of the history of the scientific revolution claims the 17th century was a period of revolutionary scientific changes. It is claimed that not only were there revolutionary theoretical and experimental developments, but that even more importantly, the way in which scientists worked was radically changed.

33. The age of enlightenment.

Enlightenment was a complex of philosophical and political ideas which led to the development of the thought.

The essence of this process:

a need for renovation, order in all spheres of life

a need to critically revise the historical process which has been regarded as chaos

-to suggest new models of social development

The enlightenment was the opposition of providence and of man's free intellect. England was the origin of enlightenment.

Reasons for this process:

early parliamentarism (legal ways of political struggle)

growth of cultural and political education

first newspapers

the rapid spread of books

a lampoon - political discussion in newspapers and journals

The church didn't oppose itself to the enlightenment. There was a balance between new traditions and the old

ones.

The English enlightenment was aimed at everyday practice. John Locke formulated the historical programme of the eng enlightenment. He gave new importance to the individual( freedom of activity, a state of equal rights), social theory of "public agreement", he also suggested that the state should be governed by laws of nature.

Ethical ideas:

Enterprise

Professionalism

Inventiveness

Competence

Business wit

34.The Formation of the National English Language 15-17cc. New English regional Dialects.

The formation of the national literary English language covers the early NE period (1475-1660). There were at least 2 major external factors which favoured the rise of National language: the unification of the country and progress of culture.

There were several steps leading to formation of national language:

1)As early as the 13th.c. (Middle English period 12th-14thcc.) within the feudal system new economic relations began to take shape . The crafts became separated from agriculture and new social groups came into being: poor townspeople, the town middle class, rich merchants, owners of workshops and money-lenders.

2)The 15th-16th centuries brought changes in the life of the country: feudal relations were decaying, bourgeois relations and the capitalist mode of production were developing rapidly ( wool industry developed, first manufactures appeared, landlords evicted the peasants and turned their lands in pastures, new nobility formed a new class ( the bourgeoisie)). The changes in economic and social conditions led to intermixture of people coming from different regions and to strengthening of social ties between various parts of the country.

3)In the end of ME and beginning of NE period the victory of capitalism over feudalism was linked up with the consolidation of people into nation and formation of national language.

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Political Situation in Early New English

There was a consolidation of the English people into a nation and formation of the English national state became a political expression of the English nation, so a need for a national language was obvious.

The formation of the National language:

The Formation is considered to date back from the period between 15-17 th c.Th language formed on the basis of the London dialect which was predominant over other ME dialects, so a standard language was understood and mainly used through the country.

The London dialect

In OE period London was the biggest town in Britain (the capital of Wessex). London dialect was based on East Saxon dialect. In the 12-13th c the inhabitants of London were from neighbouring south-western districts. In the middle of the 14 th due to the plague ( the Black death) 1/3 of the London population perished. Most of the new arrivals came from the East Midlands. In late 14th c. the London dialect became largely East Midland in character. The National Language was formed on the basis of the London dialect, because it was predominant over other ME dialects due to the political, economic, geographical and linguistic Position of London

the Canterbury Tales by Chaucer was written in the London dialect

William Caxton edited manuscripts to bring them in conformity with the London form of English The importance of the London dialect as a basis for national language grew.

The national language= Local Dialects+ Social variants+ Superdialectal Notional Form

New English Regional Dialects:

1)Southern dialects (South -Eastern, South-Western)

2)Midland dialect (East Midland, Central Midland, West Midland)

3)North Dialects, 4) Scottish dialects

The formation of literary Norm of the National English Language (factors)

1)There was a progress of Literature in 16th-17thc. the Elizabethan literature, the Golden age, (Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Spenser, Fletcher, Johnson filled the theatre with their new plays)

2)There appeared a tendency to codify and correct the language (the famous translation of the King James Bible 1611, early prescriptive grammars 16-17 th c, works of great lexicographers 17-18th)

3)3.1The written form of language became standardized earlier than its spoken Norm, which was formed much later (end of the 17th c) when the pronunciation was fixed. The social source of the written norm was the speech of Learned Men (educated) of London, Oxford, Cambridge). The introduction of printing influenced the process spreading the written form of the language (London dialect). The cheap printed editions became available to great number of people all over England.

3.2 The social source of the spoken standard was the tongue of the Middle class of London, which in the 17th c became closer to the tongue of common people (because of Revolution)

Linguistic situation in New English

1)There still was flowering of regional dialects, it led to confusion, because sometimes texts contained local words, grammar. So the language needed unification, the process was very long, as the language changed rapidly in all aspects , especially in vocabulary. Arrival of Renaissance brought hundreds loan words with their alien spelling + growth of international explorations. It took 4 centuries forthe English spelling to reach kind of steady state.

2)The influx of Latin and Greek existed. In 17 th c. the fact that English contained a mixture of words from other languages began to be seen as a strength rather than a weakness.

Requirements to language 17c.

proportion+ harmony+ order+ naturalness+ vitality

The age of literary flourishing is known as the Age of Shakespeare and it coincided with the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Elizabethan Age was famous for its drama and poetry. Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Spenser, Fletcher, Johnson contributed to the remarkable character of his age

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35. The Age of Correctness: dictionaries and prescriptive grammars (17-18 cc)

The first English dictionary, "Table Alphabeticall", was published at the beginning of the 17th century, together with the "Authorized Version of the English Bible" (the "King James" Bible). Many of the conventional ideas about style and grammar which survived into modern English were established at this time. The increasing importance of commerce as seen in the establishment of the East India Company and the British Raj in India increased the influence of Britain and the English Language in the world. By the end of the 17th century16 new grammar books had been published.

In 1762 Robert Lowth, Bishop of Oxford and a well-known grammarian of the 18th century, published his work on English grammar, "A Short Introduction to English Grammar, with critical notes". That started the age of prescriptive grammar. Just a few years later the "Declaration of Independence" was signed, and America became the first country outside the British Isles to use English as its principal language. Soon, Noah Webster’s "American Spelling Book" was issued.

Prescriptive grammar is a philosophy or approach to grammar that concerns itself with the establishment of grammatical norms that can be used to define spoken or written language as either grammatically correct or grammatically incorrect. Under a prescriptive grammar approach, language rules are generally believed to change very little over time and allow for few exceptions. This philosophy of grammar contrasts with descriptive grammar, which is an approach to grammar that relies heavily on descriptions of how native speakers of a language who have achieved linguistic competence typically use language.

17th Century: Grammars for Foreigners or for School Use:

Grammars and authors intended to improve English by patterning it after Latin as an ideal language, by prescribing “correct” logic constructions:

John Dryden worried about the preposition at the end of a sentence. He thought this practice wrong because it could not happen in Latin.

John Wallis, a mathematician and member of the Royal Society, (1658) - a grammar written in Latin for foreigners which abandons much of the method of Latin grammar. It is best remembered for the distinction between shall and will.

One of the few descriptive grammars of the period is Ben Jonson’s (1640). He was first to quote the Roman rhetorician Quintilian's dictum ''Custom is the most certain mistress of language."

18th Century: Normative (Prescriptive) Grammars for English Speakers – Language as a System of Uniform

Rules

A. Lane thought it a mistake to view grammar simply as a means to learn a foreign language and asserted that "the true End and Use of Grammar is to teach how to speak and write well and learnedly in a language already known, according to the unalterable Rules of right Reason."

Lindley Murray compiled a grammar of different grammars and the resulting mixture was one of the most successful American grammar textbooks ever, remaining a standard for a half century.

Robert Baker's Reflections on the English Language, 1770 (published anonymously) is the book of usage opinion, which comments mostly about what the author considers misuses, based chiefly on "This is not good English" or "This does not make sense.“

But George Campbell's The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 1776, is a long discussion of grammatical proprieties which says that grammar is based on usage, and he rejects notions of an abstract or universal grammar, but sets subjective rules of what is the reputable, national, and present use that counts.

36. Literature and dictionaries (19th c.)

Romanticism (1798–1837) was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Various dates are given for the Romantic period in British literature, but here the publishing of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 is taken as the beginning, and the crowning of Queen Victoria in 1837 as its end, even though, for example, William Wordsworth lived until 1850 and William Blake published before 1798. The writers of this period, however, "did not think of themselves as 'Romantics' ", and the term was first used by critics of the Victorian period

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The Romantic period was one of major social change in England, because of the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid development of overcrowded industrial cities, that took place in the period roughly between 1750 and 1850. The movement of so many people in England was the result of two forces: the Agricultural Revolution, that involved the Enclosure of the land, drove workers off the land, and the Industrial Revolution which provided them employment, "in the factories and mills, operated by machines driven by steam-power". Indeed Romanticism may be seen in part as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, though it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, as well a reaction against the scientific rationalisation of nature. The French Revolution was an especially important influence on the political thinking of many of the Romantic poets.

The poet, painter, and printmaker William Blake (1757–1827) was one of the first of the English Romantic

poets.

After Blake, among the earliest Romantics were the Lake Poets, a small group of friends, including William Wordsworth (1770–1850), Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834), Robert Southey (1774–1843) and journalist Thomas de Quincey (1785–1859). However, at the time Walter Scott (1771–1832) was the most famous poet. Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full

epic poem Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past
The	second	generation	of	Romantic	poets	includes	Lord	Byron	(1788–1824),
Percy Bysshe	Shelley	(1792–1822)	and	John Keats	(1795–1821). Byron,		however, was		still influenced

by 18th-century satirists and was, perhaps the least 'romantic' of the three, preferring "the brilliant wit of Pope to what he called the 'wrong poetical system' of his Romantic contemporaries". Byron achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings.

Major novelists in this period were the Englishwoman Jane Austen (1775–1817) and the Scotsman Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), while Gothic fiction of various kinds also flourished. Austen's works satirise the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism.

George Meredith (1828–1909) is best remembered for his novels The Ordeal of Richard Fevered (1859) and

The Egotist (1879). "His reputation stood very high well into" the 20th century but then seriously declined.

Victor Hugo spent 18 years in exile in the Channel Islands, 1852–1870. He completed Les Misérables in Guernsey and Les Travailleurs de la mer was written and set in Guernsey and has been described as "the finest British novel written in French". Hugo used some of Guernsey poet George Métivier's work as material in his novels

Victorian poetry

The leading poets during the Victorian period were Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892), Robert Browning (1812–89), Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–61), and Matthew Arnold (1822–88). The poetry of this period was heavily influenced by the Romantics, but also went off in its own directions. Particularly notable was the development of the dramatic monologue, a form used by many poets in this period, but perfected by Browning.

Early Modern English

Dictionary

•Dictionary of the English language by Samuel Johnson (1768, 3rd edition) & 1792 edition A Dictionary of The English Language

in which the Words are deduced from their Originals, explained in their Different Meanings

•Dictionary of the English language by Samuel Johnson & John Walker (1828 edition)

•Preface of the first edition (1755)

•Grammar of the English tongue by Samuel Johnson

Grammar, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts ;

Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

•Grammar of the English tongue by Samuel Johnson (in English & translation in German)

•The life of Samuel Johnson by James Boswell

•Table Alphabetically by Robert Crawdrey (1604): the first English dictionary (120 pages, 3 000 words)

•Universal etymological English dictionary by Nathan Bailey (1756)

•Glossary of Tudor and Stuart words, especially from the dramatists, by Walter Skeat & Anthony Mayhew (1914)

•New light on some obscure words and phrases in the works of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, by Charles

Mackay (1884)

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