Bilety2kurs / Obschaya_lingvokultura

Early Modern English language

•A Shakespearian grammar, An attempt to illustrate some of the differences between Elizabethan and modern English, by Edwin Abbott (1877)

•The comparison of adjectives in English (15-18th century) by Louise Pound (1901)

• On early English pronunciation with especial reference to Shakspere and Chaucer, by

Alexander Ellis (1869): I & II - III - IV - V

•Shakespeare's pronunciation by Wilhelm Viëtor (1906) : I (A Shakespeare phonology & rime-index to the poems as a pronouncing vocabulary) & II (A Shakespeare reader)

•John Hart's pronunciation of English (1569-1570) by Otto Jespersen (1907)

37. New English composition.

In Middle English word compounding was less productive than in the OE period, but in Early New English its productivity grew.

Compound words of the NE period were formed after both OE and new structural patterns. In addition, there appeared many hybrids with stems of diverse origin.

Types of patterns:

1)Noun + noun model (godfather, workshop, snowdrop, cranberry, gooseberry etc.) Inherited from OE. Word-hybrids: bread-basket, armchair (E+Fr), chestnut, tablecloth, puppet-show (Fr+E), law-suit (Scan+E), schoolboy, schoolgirl (Lat. School)

2)Compounds containing a verbal noun/newly formed gerund/ stem of agent nouns – new modification of the first pattern.

a)With a verbal noun - reading room, looking-glass drawing-room

b)With stems of agent nouns – fortune-teller (hybrid: from Latin fortuna), rope-dancer, baby-

sitter (Modern English) typewriter (hybrid; type - from Latin typus, from Ancient Greek τύπος (túpos, “mark, impression, type”)

3) A new pattern – Verb-stem + adverb. Origin – from ME composite verbs. This kind of noun formation is an instance of conversion.

Break down (v) – break-down (n), lay out (v) – lay-out (n), fall-out (v) – fall-out (n)

4)Noun + adjective (inherited from OE) world-wide, country-wide, colour-blind, stone-dead. The second element can also be Pres./ Past Participle: heart-broken, hand-written.

5)One more new type ( the most productive) – “derivational compounds”

Adjective + Noun + Derivational Suffix

(from OE “bahuvrihi type” – adjective + noun-stem, e.g. mild-heort)

Light-hearted, gray-haired, dark-eyed, long-legged, absent-minded (hybrid: Fr+E)

Less productive models:

1)Adjective + noun (ME and NE pattern) hot-house, shorthand; Hybrids: blackguard ( E+Fr), bilberry (Scan+E)

2)Adverb + noun (rare) ME forefader, NE forefather

3)Patterns with verb-stems: charcoal, lay-day, leapyear, keep-sake, makeshift

38.Means of enriching vocabulary in New English. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

The principal inner means in New English is the appearance of new words formed by means of conversion. Usually new words are formed by acquiring a new paradigm and function within a sentence. Thus, book (a noun) has the paradigm book — books. Book (a verb) has the paradigm book — books — booked — booking, etc. (The book is on the table - He booked a room.) Similarly:

man (n) — man (v)

stone (n) — stone (v) — stone (adj) (as in "a stone bench"), etc.

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External means of enriching vocabulary

Very many new words appear in New English due to borrowing. It is necessary to say here that the process of borrowing, the sources of loan words, the nature of the new words is different from Middle English and their appearance in the language cannot be understood unless sociolinguistic factors are taken into consideration.

Chronologically speaking, New English borrowings may be subdivided into borrowings of the Early New English period XV—XVII centuries, the period preceeding the establishment of the literary norm, and loan words which entered the language after the establishment of the literary norm — in the XVIII—XX centuries, the period which is generally alluded to as late New English.

— Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII centuries)

Borrowings into the English language in the XV—XVII centuries are primarily due to political events and also to the cultural and. trade relations between the English people and peoples in other countries. Thus, in the XV century — the epoch of Renaissance, there appeared in the English language many words borrowed from the Italian tongue:

cameo, archipelago, dilettante, fresco, violin, balcony, gondola, grotto, volcano; in the XVI century — Spanish and Portuguese words, such as:

armada, negro, tornado, mosquito, renegade, matador

and also Latin (the language of culture of the time), for instance:

— verbs, with the characteristic endings -ate, -ute:

aggravate, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate, separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute, prosecute, execute,

etc.,

— adjectives ending in -ant, -ent, -ior, -al:

arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior, inferior, senior, junior, dental, cordial, filial.

As a result of numerous Latin borrowings at the time there appeared many ethymological doublets: Latin

strictum
(direct) strict	strait (through French)
seniorem
senior	sir
faclum
fact	feat
defectum
defect	defeat

In the XVII century due to relations with the peoples of America such words were borrowed as: canoe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco, mahogany, cannibal, hammock, squaw, moccasin, wigwam, etc. French borrowings — after the Restoration:

ball, ballet, billet, caprice, coquette, intrigue, fatigue, naive.

—Late New English borrowings (XYIII—XX centuries)

— German:

kindergarten, waltz, wagon, boy, girl

— French:

magazine, machine, garage, police, engine, nacelle, aileron

— Indian:

bungalow, jungle, indigo

—Chinese: coolie, tea

—Arabic:

caravan, divan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, bazaar, orange, cotton, candy, chess

—Australian:

kangaroo, boomerang, lubra — Russian:

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Before the October Revolution the borrowings from the Russian language were mainly words reflecting Russian realia of the time:

borzoi, samovar, tsar, verst, taiga, etc.

After the Revolution there entered the English language such words that testified to the political role of this country in the world, as:

Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz.

Cultural and technical achievements are reflected in such borrowings as: sputnik, lunnik, lunokhod, synchrophasotron

and recently such political terms as: glasnost, perestroika.

In New English there also appeared words formed on the basis of Greek and Latin vocabulary. They are mainly scientific or technical terms, such as: telephone, telegraph, teletype, telefax, microphone, sociology, politology, electricity, etc.

39. Linguistic Situation in New English Period

The language in New English is growing very rapidly, the amount of actually existing words being impossible to estimate. Though some of the words existing in Old English and Middle English are no longer used in New English, the amount of new words exceeds the number of obsolete ones manifold.

Requirements to language 17th c.

Proportion;

Harmony;

Order;

Naturalness;

Vitality.

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII centuries)

Borrowings into the English language in the XV—XVlI centuries are primarily due to political events and also to the cultural and trade relations between the English people and peoples in other countries. Thus, in the XV century

—the epoch of Renaissance, there appeared in the English language many words borrowed from the Italian tongue: cameo, archipelago, dilettante, fresco, violin, balcony, gondola, grotto, volcano; in the XVI century — Spanish and Portuguese words, such as: armada, negro, tornado, mosquito, renegade, matador and also Latin (the language of culture of the time), for instance:

—verbs, with the characteristic endings “-ate”, “-ute”: aggravate, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate, separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute, prosecute, execute, etc.,

—adjectives ending in “-ant”, “-ent”, “-ior”, “-al”: arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior, inferior, senior, junior, dental, cordial, filial. As a result of numerous Latin borrowings at the time there appeared many ethymological doublets.

Latin Strictum - (direct) strict+ strait (through French)

In the XVII century due to relations with the peoples of America such words were borrowed as canoe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco, mahogany, cannibal, hammock, squaw, moccasin, wigwam, etc. French borrowings — after the Restoration: ball, ballet, billet, caprice, coquette, intrigue, fatigue, naive.

—Late New English borrowings (XYII1—XX centuries)

—German: kindergarten, waltz, wagon, boy, girl;

—French: magazine, machine, garage, police, engine, nacelle, aileron;

—Indian: bungalow, jungle, indigo;

—Chinese: coolie, tea;

—Arabic: caravan, divan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, bazaar, orange, cotton, candy, chess;

—Australian: kangaroo, boomerang, lubra;

— Russian:

Before the October Revolution the borrowings from the Russian language were mainly words reflecting Russian realia of the time: borzoi, samovar, tsar, verst, taiga, etc. After the Revolution there entered the English language such words that testified to the political role of this country in the world, as: Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz.

Cultural and technical achievements are reflected in such borrowings as: sputnik, lunnik, lunokhod, synchrophasotron and recently such political terms as glasnost, perestroika.

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In New English there also appeared words formed on the basis of Greek mainly scientific or technical terms, such as: telephone, telegraph, teletype, politology, electricity, etc.

and Latin vocabulary. They are telefax, microphone, sociology,

40. Geographical expansion of English in the 17th – 20th cc.

In the last 3 hundred years the English language has extended to all the continents of the world and in the course of British expansion overseas, colonization and emigration to other continents the number of English speakers increased so much that by 1900 it had reached 123 mln. People

1620 – the Mayflower reached North America

18th - India, conquest of Canada

19th - Colonization of Australia

20th South Africa

Nearly 300 mln – speak Eng as their national language

The new inventions and technologies gave rise to new words

Dr Johnson’s Dictionary was not good enough

A new dictionary was needed

In the 9th century the English language was researched and codified as never before

The Philological Society was founded in London and the year 1882 was the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary. It contained words, their meanings and roots, illustration from all styles of writing.

It took 80 years to compile it.

OED is still the most influential dictionary in the English speaking world.

With description for approximately 750.000 words the OED is the world’s most comprehensive singlelanguage print dictionary according to the Guinness Book of World Records.

England’s colonial expansion to the New World (America) began in the late 16th c. But the actual settlement of the English people in America came later. The colonists spoke different dialects of English.

In North America those dialects gradually blended into a new type of language – American English. American Dictionary of the English language by Noah Webster.

N.Webster was the first to proclaim American English an independent language.

In his dictionary (1828) he showed the differences in vocabulary and pronunciation between the English in Britain and North America.

We regard BrE and AmE as two national varieties of the ENG LANGUAGE

20th c.

GB lost the greatest part of its possesions overseas.

Yet a list of countries with an eglish –speaking population outside the British Isles incudes the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the South African Republic.

In Britain, the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand – eng will remain the 1st language of most people but will continue to change

2001-2005

330-380 Mln people – native speakers

250-1.4 billion – speak eng as their 2nd language.

And of course, friends, disputes of the development of Eng are not likely to ever end up!

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