donchenko_angliyska_ddlya_psikhologiv_i_sotsiologiv

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abstract and one-sided. His arguments for society as the sole worthy moral goal were unsubstantiated and weak. One can hardly deny, for example, the moral value of the personality and of its harmonious development. And although Durkheim recognised and actively defended the rights and dignity of the individual, his theory did not allow him to examine the interaction of the individual and society dialectically in concrete historical conditions. The principle of the unconditional superiority of society over the individual was unsound. Abstract unhistorical collectivism was just as unjustified as the abstract individualism that he constantly criticised. The relation of the individual and society, considered from the moral aspect, cannot be reduced to a relation of subordination. The relation between them is one of dialectical interaction.

IX. Translate the text in writing:

THE PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL

CONCEPTION OF RELIGION

The conception of religion crowned the development of

Durkheim's idea of collective consciousness as «the highest form of the psychic life» or «the consciousness of the consciousnesses». The attitude to religion traditional for positivism, as the supreme social institution that ensured the integration of society, acquired the form, with Durkheim, of quests for ways and means of a sociological explanation of religion under the influence of English and American anthropologists, in particular Sir James Frazer and Robertson Smith. Durkheim drew on anthropological material since he considered, in the spirit of early evolutionism, that «all the essential elements of religious

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thought and life ought to be found, at least in germ, among the most primitive religions». He hoped, by studying totemism as the most primitive form of religion, to understand the essence and functions of religion in «complex» societies which he considered to be «only varieties of the same species».

When approaching the matter of defining religion from study of its primitive forms, Durkheim claimed that the idea of the supernatural and the idea of God were not necessary attributes of religion. He considered the division of all objects into two opposing classes, sanctified by religion, an inherent feature of all religious beliefs without exception.

The sacred had a taboo character, a separateness from earthly phenomena, and was an object of aspiration, love, and respect. The sacred was thus simultaneously a source of constraint (taboo) and respect (authority), in Durkheim's view, that indicated the social nature of the sacred, since only society had such qualities: it was at once a source of authority, love, and adoration, and a source of constraint. The sacred embodied the collective force, and inculcated the idea of the common in individual consciousness, and connected it with something that transcended it.

The earthly was linked with man's everyday life, and his everyday individual occupations, private interests, and egoistic passions. The dichotomy of the sacred and earthly thus went back, in Durkheim, to the dichotomy of the social and the individual. He defined religion as follows:

A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called the Church, all those who adhere to them.

By «Church» he meant an organisation that organised a group's religious life. Even among primitive peoples there were

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«churches», i.e., people who looked after the timely and proper holding of religious rites and ceremonies. His main example of lay, «vulgar» activity, was labour, the source of grief and sorrow; an example of sacred activity was collective religious ceremonies and rituals, the source of joy and a heightened state of the spirit. He repeatedly declared that his definition was far from acceptable to everyone. Its main sign was the performance of rituals directed to sacred objects, from manipulation of which the solidarity of the group gathered force, and the common, collective consciousness was reinforced, which kept up the spirits of the individuals and gave them the confidence necessary for life.

As the theorist of «sociologism» Durkheim considered that neither physical nor biological causes could explain religion and its origin and essence. He therefore rejected animism, which deduced religion from notions about an immortal soul (Edward

Taylor), and «naturism», which deduced religion from involuntary adoration of physical natural forces (Max Muller, and others). These theories were based on an idea that «man has superimposed on the reality available to observation an unreal world built almost completely from the fanstastic images that trouble his spirit in dreams». The researcher's task was to find the objectively existing reality that was the cause, object, and goal of religious beliefs and ceremonies. That reality was society.

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GRAMMAR DRILL EXERCISES

PRESENT SIMPLE

I. Change the following sentences according to the model:

I study social psychology.

He studies social psychology.

1.I want to achieve good results.

2.I deny his point of view.

3.I consider his theory to be true.

4.I investigate the problem of perception.

5.I make conclusions after each experiment.

6.I apply new methods of research.

7.I make testing at the laboratory.

8.I give instructions to the subject.

9.I compare the results of the experiment.

10.I reject this hypothesis.

II. Change the following sentences into general questions:

Pattern: He makes testing at the laboratory. Does he make testing at the laboratory?

1.He applies the new method for his investigation.

2.The subject compares the cards.

3.The psychologist rejects this idea.

4.She often works at the psychological laboratory.

5.The scientist applies new devices.

6.The investigator uses testing in his research.

7.He considers them to be right.

8.She gives instructions to the students.

9.He gradually achieves good progress in his studies.

10.She denies such hasty conclusions.

III. Make the following sentences negative:

Pattern: I consider him to be right. I don't consider him to be right.

1.I reject his position.

2.I make proper conclusions.

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3. I apply his method for my experiments.

4.I specialize in engineering psychology.

5.I study the problem of group dynamics.

6.I compare the experimental data.

7.I use the latest data in my research.

8.I deny their approach.

9.I give instructions to the subjects.

10.I achieve good results on the basis of his method.

IV. Ask your partner:

1.where he makes experiments;

2.what problem he investigates;

3.where he applies his method of research;

4.when he gives instructions to the subjects;

5.what latest data he uses;

6.whose position he considers to be right;

7.whose approach he denies;

8.what results he wants to achieve;

9.when he goes to the psychological laboratory;

10.what subject he likes most of all.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

I. Answer the question: «What are you doing now?»

Pattern: I am answering the questions.

1.measure weight

2.observe a phenomenon of perception

3.perform a task

4.solve a problem

5.make testing

6.compare experimental results

7.study the subjects' behaviour

8.make an inquiry

9.investigate the effects of environment

10.watch the conduct of the subjects

II. Complete the following sentences:

Pattern: He is . . (measure the length).

He is measuring the length now.

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1.She is ... (make an experiment).

2.He is ... (interview the subjects).

3.She is ... (watch the testing process).

4.He is ... (solve a problem).

5.She is ... (register the students' answers).

6.The student is ... (copy the experimental data).

7.The subject is ... (perform a task).

8.The scientist is ... (compare the data).

9.He is ... (investigate sense-data).

III. Change the following sentences into general questions:

Pattern: They are working in the laboratory now. Are they working in the laboratory now?

1.We are listening to the subject's report.

2.They are reading the data of the device.

3.You are making an inquiry.

4.They are testing the students.

5.We are solving a complex problem.

6.You are watching their behaviour.

7.They are interviewing the subjects.

8.We are recording the data.

9.You are making an experiment.

10.They are comparing the data.

IV. Change the following sentences by using the model

«to be going to»:

Pattern: We intend to make an experiment. We are going to make an experiment.

1.I plan to watch his behaviour.

2.He intends to interview a group of students.

3.She wants to solve this problem by all means.

4.We intend to take part in his investigation.

5.They plan to apply a new method.

6.I want to use his analysis.

7.He intends to compare the new data.

8.She plans to finish the experiment soon.

9.We want to interview the subjects.

10.They intend to study this phenomenon.

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V. Answer the following questions:

Pattern: What are you going to do tonight? (to work at the library)

I am going to work at the library.

1.What are you going to do tomorrow? (to test the children)

2.What is he going to do today?

(to perform a task)

3. What is she going to do next week? (to make an experiment)

4.What are they going to do now? (to observe this phenomenon)

5.What are you going to do in the laboratory? (to measure the distance)

6.What is he going to do tonight?

(to finish his work)

7.What is she going to do next year? (to continue her investigation)

8.What are they going to do in a day? (to watch the process of accomodation)

9.What are they going to do tomorrow? (to copy experimental data)

10.What is he going to do next week? (to conduct testing)

PAST SIMPLE

I. Change the following sentences by using the verb in Past

Simple instead of the model «used to»:

Pattern: I used to make inquiry in the laboratory. I made inquiry in the laboratory.

1.He used to behave quite well.

2.She used to discriminate these phenomena.

3.We used to obtain good results.

4.They used to present the data in due time.

5.I used to settle such questions easily.

6.He used to pose interesting problems.

7.She used to apply various methods.

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8.We used to introduce new factors.

9.They used to display good knowledge.

10.I used to introduce new conditions while experimenting.

II. Change the following sentences into a negative form:

Pattern: He displayed good knowledge of this subject. He didn't display good knowledge of this subject.

1.Last time he behaved well.

2.They obtained interesting data.

3.She applied a new approach.

4.We introduced new subjects.

5.I settled this question easily.

6.He made a great contribution to developing science.

7.She differentiated these factors by a new scheme.

8.They presented interesting conclusions.

9.We analyzed his behaviour.

10.I accepted their point of view.

III. Change the following sentences into an interrogative form:

Pattern: He rejected her point of view. Did he reject her point of view?

1.I obtained certain conclusions.

2.Ho applied a new way of thinking.

3.She accepted his approach.

4.We presented our position.

5.They interviewed a series of the subjects.

6.She made a great contribution to this research.

7.He achieved new results.

8.They displayed good knowledge of this problem.

9.We described a new method in detail.

10.She introduced new elements into her experiment.

IV. Ask questions starting with «when».

Pattern: He described this phenomenon last year. When did he describe this phenomenon?

1.They applied the new approach last Monday.

2.He came to this conclusion yesterday.

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3.She obtained interesting results after her investigation.

4.I settled this question in the evening.

5.He observed her behaviour after testing.

6.They interviewed a group of students before the classes.

7.She achieved a certain step in her observation last week.

8.We studied their behaviour in the process of the experiment.

9.He worked out a new approach last month.

10.They investigated the sense-data last year.

V. Ask questions starting with «where».

Pattern: She introduced new elements into the experiment.

Where did she introduce new elements?

1.They achieved good knowledge in psychology.

2.He obtained new data in the laboratory.

3.We got various results in the investigation.

4.She applied his approach to this problem in her inquiry.

5.I used the method of discrimination in my report.

6.They presented the new material in their paper.

7.He introduced new testing at the plant.

8.We asked a lot of questions at the office.

9.She made a great contribution to psychology.

10.He carried out a survey in this region.

PRESENT PERFECT

I. Change the predicates in the sentences from Present

Progressive into Present Perfect: Pattern: I am not writing a report now. I have written it already.

1. We are not analyzing the data now.

2.I am not making an experiment now.

3.We are not interviewing the subjects now.

4.I am not comparing the data now.

5.We are not recording the results now.

6.I am not observing his behaviour now.

7.We are not solving a problem now.

8.I am not copying the experimental data now.

9.We are not discussing his approach now.

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10.I am not reporting on my conclusions now.

II. Change the sentences from Present Progressive into

Present Perfect negative:

Pattern: He is solving a problem now. He hasn't solved the problem yet.

1.She is considering this hypothesis now.

2.He is making analyses now.

3.She is measuring the length of this object now.

4.He is thinking the matter over now.

5.She is watching this phenomenon now.

6.He is describing his pictures now.

7.She is demonstrating some experiments now.

8.He is introducing a new device now.

9.She is performing a task now.

10.He is working out a new method now.

III. Change the following sentences into an interrogative form:

Pattern: We have finished this experiment. Have you finished this experiment?

1.I have applied the new approach lately.

2.He has achieved good knowledge.

3.She has obtained productive results.

4.We have considered the issue already.

5.They have just spoken to the leading sociologist.

6.I have accepted his point of view.

7.He has rejected his hypothesis.

8.We have used a new device already.

9.They have demonstrated their method recently.

10.I have made certain conclusions.

IV. Change the following indirect questions into direct ones:

Pattern: Ask your friend why he has finished his experiment. Why have you finished your experiment?

1.Ask your friend where they have been this week.

2.Ask your friend where she has made measurements.