4. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices

4.1. Interaction Of Different Types Of Lexical Meanings

Tropes based on the interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings: Zeugma, Pun.

Tropes based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings: Epithet, Oxymoron.

Tropes based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings: Antonomasia.

Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon: Simile, Periphrasis, Euphemism, Hyperbole, and Understatement.

Peculiar use of set expressions: the Cliché, Proverbs and Sayings, Epigrams, Quotations, Allusions, Decomposition of Set Phrases.

4.1.1. Tropes Based on the Interaction of Two Logical Meanings

Metaphor is a trope, which means transference of some quality from one object to another. It is based on the simultaneous realization of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings. Metaphor is a method of description, which identifies one thing with another.

There are three types of transference in Metaphor:

• Transference of the name of one object to another

E.g. He was already familiar with the geography of the house.

• Transference of the name of the action

E.g. He shot after her. /He suddenly started running very fast/

E.g. The time was bleeding for her. /went very slowly/

• Transference of the typical features of one thing to another

E.g. The yellow pancake was high in the sky. /about the sun/

E.g. The old butterfly was sitting in her rocky-chair on the patio. /about an elderly lady/

Metaphor is based not so much on similarity of the two objects/actions/features, but on their identity. Metaphors, like all SDs, can be classified according to the degree of unexpectedness. Thus, metaphors which are absolutely unexpected (quite unpredictable) are called genuine; while those which are commonly used in speech and therefore fixed in dictionaries, are called trite (or dead).

Trite metaphors are sometimes filled with new vigour. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words, bearing some reference to the main word. Such metaphors are called sustainedorprolonged.

E.g.Mr. Pickwickbottled uphis vengeance andcorked it down.(Ch. Dickens)

The verb to bottle upis explained in dictionaries as follows: “to keep in check”, “to conceal, to restrain”. The metaphor in the word can hardly be felt, but it is revived by the direct meaning of the verbto cork down/.

E.g.Mr. Dombey’s cupof satisfaction was sofullat this moment, however, that he felt he could afforda drop or two of its content, evento sprinkleon the dust in the by-path of his little daughter. (Ch. Dickens)

The principal metaphor may be called the central imageof the sustained metaphor and the other words that bear reference to the central image –contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cupis the central image, while its contributory images arefull,drop,contentandto sprinkle.

Metaphor is usually expressed by verbs, nouns, adverbs, etc.

Metonymyis a trope based on a different type of the interaction between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts, which these two meanings represent.

There are several types of association in metonymy:

• The name of the container stands for the name of the thing contained

E.g.Will you have anotherglass? /of wine/

E.g. He drank anotherbottle. /of beer/

• The name of the material stands for the name of the thing made of it.

E.g. Yoursatinneeds ironing. /the outfit made of satin/

• The name of the creator stands for the name of the thing made by him

E.g.She has bought twoGlazunovs. /pictures made by this painter/

• The name of the symbol stands for the name of the thing symbolized.

E.g.He made his way through theperfumeandconversation. /through the crowd of perfumed and talking people/

• The name of the instrument stands for the name of the action it performs

E.g.Well, Mr. Weller, you’re a goodwhipand can do what you like with your horses. (Ch. Dickens)

• The name of the concrete thing stands for the name of an abstract notion

E.g.Elisabeth II is thecrownof Britain. /the queen/

• The name of the part stands for the whole, and vice versa (synecdoche)

E.g.She saw around her… multitudes of violently red lips, powdered cheeksand cold hardeyes.

Metonymy is usually expressed by nouns. It differs from metaphor in the way it is decoded. In metaphor one image excludes the other, while in metonymy it does not.

Ironyis a SD based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, which stand in opposition to each other.

E.g.It must bedelightfulto find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

The word delightfulacquires the meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, i.e. “unpleasant”, “not delightful”. The word containing irony is strongly marked by intonation. Irony is used to express irritation, regret, pity, mockery, etc. Bitter socially or politically aimed irony is calledsarcasm.