OpenBook

Mkeh\by ID IJKnAm fh`gh ^hklb]gmlv ijbeb\Zy ^hklZlhqgh [hevrh_ dhebq_kl\h jZkl\hjbl_ey eb[h `_ k\yau\Zy \ fZeh^bkkhpbb jmxsb_ qZklbpu l_ bhgu dhlhju_ hkZ^hd KnAm ihkueZ_l \ jZkl\hj

Ih \_ebqbg_ IJ fh`_l [ulv gZc^_gZ jZkl\hjbfhklv \_s_kl\Z s fhev e >ey [bgZjguo we_dljheblh\ gZijbf_j%D624 IJ –10),

jZkl\hjbfhklv s = k(Ba2+) = c(SO42– ihwlhfm

IJ = k(Ba2+) · c(SO42–) = s2 hldm^Z s = IJ = 1,1 10−10 10−5 fhev e

Ijbf_j Ijhba\_^_gb_ jZkl\hjbfhklb $J2SO4 jZ\gh .10–5 (25 hK Hij_^_eblv jZkl\hjbfhklv wlhc kheb \ fhev e b \ ] e

J_r_gb_

Khev ^bkkhpbbjm_l ih ko_f_ $J2SO4 : Ag+ + SO42–.

H[hagZqbf bkdhfmx jZkl\hjbfhklv kheb q_j_a s fhev e

Lh]^Z k(Ag+) = 2s Z k(SO42–) = s.

IJ $J2SO4 k2(Ag+Âk6242–) = (2s)2 · s = 4s3.

Hlkx^Z s = 3 IJ / 4 = 3	1,6 10−5	−6 1,6·10–2 fhev e
	= 3 4 10
	4

LZd dZd fheyjgZy fZkkZ $J2SO4 jZ\gZ ] fhev lh jZkl\hjb fhklv $J2SO4 \ ] e [m^_l jZ\gZ–2 ·312 ] e

Ijbf_j JZkl\hjbfhklv3E,2 ijb hK jZ\gZ · 10–4 fhev e JZkkqblZlv IJ3E,2 ijb hK

J_r_gb_

LZd dZd jZkl\hjbfhklv3E,2 jZ\gZ · 10–4 fhev e lh dhgp_gljZpby bhgh\3E2+ \ gZkus_gghf jZkl\hj_ kheb [m^_l lZdZy `_ – 6,5 · 10–4 fhev e dhgp_gljZpby,– [m^_l \ ^\Z jZaZ [hevr_

PbI2 :3E2+ + 2I– l _

Ba fhev3E,2 ijb ^bkkhpbZpbb h[jZam_lky fhev,– Lh]^Z IJ PbI2) = c( Pb2+) · c2(I–) = 6,5 · 10–4 · (2 Â 6,5 · 10–4)2 1,1 · 10–9.

Ijbf_j . Kf_rZeb jZ\gu_ h[t_fu F jZkl\hjh\&D&O2 b Na2SO4 H[jZam_lky eb hkZ^hd&D624"IJ&D624) = 2,5 · 10–5 .

J_r_gb_

Ba\_klgh qlh hkZ^hd kheb h[jZam_lky _keb ijhba\_^_gb_ dhg p_gljZpbc khhl\_lkl\mxsbo bhgh\ kheb \ fhf_gl kf_rb\Zgby [m^_l [hevr_ ijhba\_^_gby jZkl\hjbfhklb wlhc kheb LZd dZd ijb kf_rb\Z gbb jZ\guo h[t_fh\ ^\mo khe_c dhgp_gljZpby dZ`^hc kheb mf_gvrZ _lky \^\h_ lh \ fhf_gl kf_rb\Zgby dhgp_gljZpbb khe_c \ gZr_f

kemqZ_ [m^ml jZ\gu ih fhev e Dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ &D2+ b SO42– \ wlhl `_ fhf_gl [m^ml jZ\gu ih fhev e Ke_^h\Zl_evgh

71

fZeh^bkkhpbbjmxsbo

+ OH-.

+ H+,

k(Ca2+) · k(SO42–) = 0,0005 · 0,0005 = 2,5·10–7 qlh agZqbl_evgh f_gvr_ \_ebqbgu IJ&D624 AgZqbl hkZ^hd g_ h[jZam_lky

Ijbf_j KhihklZ\blv jZkl\hjbfhklv $J&Oijb hK \ \h^_ b \

jZkl\hj_ 1D&O k dhgp_gljZpb_c F 1D&O fhev e IJ $J&O

=1,8·10–10.

J_r_gb_

Imklv jZkl\hjbfhklv $J&Oijb wlbo mkeh\byo \ \h^_ jZ\gZVLh ]^Z c(Ag+) = c(Cl–) = s kf ijbf_j

IJ $J&O c(Ag+) c(Cl–) = s2;

s = IJ = 1,34 10−5 fhev e

Imklv jZkl\hjbfhklv $J&O\ F jZkl\hj_1D&OjZ\gZ s1 lh]^Z k(Ag+) = s1, k(Cl–) = s1 Ih^klZ\bf wlb agZq_gby \ \ujZ`_gb_

IJ $J&O

IJ(AgCl) = s1(s1 + 0,1) = 1,8 ·10–10. LZd dZd >> s1 lh s1 + 0,1 0,1 b ij_^u^ms__ \ujZ`_gb_ fh`gh mijhklblv s1 · 0,1 = 1,8 · 10–10 Hl

kx^Z s1 = 1,8·10–9.

KjZ\gbf jZkl\hjbfhklv AgCl \ \h^_ b \ F jZkl\hj_ NaCl. < F jZkl\hj_1D&OjZkl\hjbfhklv $J&O[m^_l f_gvr_ \

s	=	1,34 10		−5	= 7,4	10	3	jZa
s1			1,8 10−9

=b^jheba khe_c

=b^jheba kheb – ijhp_kk \aZbfh^_ckl\by kheb k \h^hc ijb\h^y sbc d h[jZah\Zgbx keZ[h^bkkhpbbjmxsbo qZklbp fhe_dme beb bh gh\ =b^jheba khe_c dZq_kl\_ggh fh`gh jZkkfZljb\Zlv dZd j_amevlZl iheyjbaZpbhggh]h \aZbfh^_ckl\by bhgh\ kheb k bo ]b^jZlghc h[h ehqdhc b mijhs_ggh ij_^klZ\blv ke_^mxsbfb ko_fZfb

Kn+ + HOH ↔ KOH(n–1)+ An– + HOH ↔ HA(n–1)–

=b^jheba h[mkeh\e_g h[jZah\Zgb_f qZk-

lbp DHG(n–1)+ b G:(n–1)–.

Q_f [hevr_ aZjy^ b f_gvr_ jZ^bmk bhgh\ kheb l_f kbevg__ bo

iheyjbaZpbhggh_ \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ k \h^hc keZ[__ ^bkkhpbZpby h[jZ amxsboky qZklbp DHG(n–1)+ b G:(n–1)– b \ [hevr_c kl_i_gb ijhbkoh

^bl ]b^jheba

Iheyjbamxs__ \ebygb_ gZ fhe_dmeu \h^u g_\_ebdh m dZlbhgh\ s_ehqguo b s_ehqgha_f_evguo f_lZeeh\ h^ghaZjy^guo Zgbhgh\ gZ

72

ijbf_j&O–, Br–, NO3− m g_dhlhjuo ^\moaZjy^guo gZijbf_j62 24− Ih wlhfm kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ Zgbhghf kbevghc dbkehlu b dZlbhghf kbevgh]h hkgh\Zgby ]b^jhebam g_ ih^\_j]Zxlky

<hafh`gu ke_^mxsb_ kemqZb ]b^jhebaZ khe_c ]b^jheba ih Zgbhgm ih dZlbhgm ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm h^gh\j_f_ggh

=b^jheba ih Zgbhgm ?fm ih^\_j]Zxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZ lbhghf kbevgh]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf keZ[hc dbkehlu (K2CO3, Na2S, Na2SO3, K3PO4 b ^j Ijb ]b^jheba_ kha^Z_lky s_ehqgZy kj_^ZS+ > 7). GZijbf_j

CH3COONa → CH3COO– + Na+,

Na+ + HOH → j_Zdpby g_ b^_l

CH3COO– + HOH ↔ CH3COOH + OH–.

Fhe_dmeyjgh_ mjZ\g_gb_ ]b^jhebaZ –

CH3COONa + HOH <&+3COOH + NaOH.

>Zgguc ijhp_kk h[jZlbfuc jZ\gh\_kb_ ]b^jhebaZ kbevgh kf_ s_gh \e_\h ihkdhevdm D+2O) < D&+3COOH).

=b^jheba fgh]haZjy^gh]h ZgbhgZ ijhl_dZ_l klmi_gqZlh b ijb h[uqguo mkeh\byo ]eZ\guf h[jZahf b^_l lhevdh ih i_j\hc klmi_gb

GZijbf_j: Na2SO3 → 2Na+ + SO32− ,

Na+ + HOH → j_Zdpby g_ b^_l

SO32− + HOH <+623− + OH– klmi_gv

HSO3− + HOH <+2SO3 + OH– klmi_gv

Fhe_dmeyjgu_ mjZ\g_gby khhl\_lkl\_ggh bf_xl \b^

Na2SO3 GHG <1DG623 +NaOH,

NaHSO3 + HOH <+2SO3 + NaOH.

=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm. ?fm ih^\_j]Zxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZ lbhghf keZ[h]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf kbevghc dbkehlu (NH4Br, ZnCl2, Cu(NO3)2 b ^j Kj_^Z ijb ]b^jheba_ dbkeZy jG GZijbf_j

CuCl2 → Cu2+ + Cl–,

Cl– + HOH → j_Zdpby g_ b^_l

Cu2+ + HOH < CuOH+ + H+ klmi_gv

Fhe_dmeyjgh_ mjZ\g_gb_ i_j\hc klmi_gb ]b^jhebaZ –

CuCl2 + HOH <&X2+&O +&O

=b^jhebahf ih \lhjhc klmi_gb ijb h[uqguo mkeh\byo fh`gh ij_g_[j_qv

73

=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm. Ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm ]b^jheb amxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZlbhghf keZ[h]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf keZ[hc dbkehlu GZijbf_j

CH3COONH4 → CH3COO– + NH4+,

CH3COO– + HOH < CH3COOH + OH–,

NH4+ + HOH < NH4OH + H+,

CH3COO– + NH4+ + HOH < CH3COOH + NH4OH.

Fhe_dmeyjgh_ mjZ\g_gb_ –

CH3COONH4 + HOH < CH3COOH + NH4OH.

=b^jheba \ ^Zgghf kemqZ_ ijhl_dZ_l ^h\hevgh bgl_gkb\gh H[jZ amxsb_ky ijb ]b^jheba_ bhgu G+ b HG– k\yau\Zxlky \ fhe_dmeu G2H qlh mkbeb\Z_l ]b^jheba b ih dZlbhgm b ih Zgbhgm J_Zdpby kj_ ^u aZ\bkbl hl khhlghr_gby dhgklZgl ^bkkhpbZpbb h[jZamxsboky db kehlu b hkgh\Zgby < ^Zgghf kemqZ_ S+ ≈ lZd dZd K(NH3 · H2O) ≈

§K(CH3COOH).

?keb dbkehlZ b hkgh\Zgb_ h[jZamxsb_ky \ ijhp_kk_ ]b^jhebaZ moh^yl ba ahgu ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbb \ \b^_ hkZ^dZ beb ]ZaZ lh ]b^ jheba fh`_l ijhl_dZlv ijZdlbq_kdb g_h[jZlbfh LZd gZijbf_j

Al2S3 ijb dhglZdl_ k \h^hc iheghklvx ij_\jZsZ_lky \ fZehjZkl\hjb fuc ]b^jhdkb^ Zexfbgby b \ ]Zahh[jZaguc k_jh\h^hjh^

Al2S3 GHG → 2Al(OH)3↓ + 3H2S↑.

Ih wlhc `_ ijbqbg_ kf_rb\Zy \h^gu_ jZkl\hju AlCl3 b Na2S, g_evay ihemqblv Al2S3 :

2AlCl3 + 3Na2S + 6HOH → 2Al(OH)3↓ + 3H2S↑ + 6NaCl, 2Al3+ + 3S2– + 6H2O → 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S.

Ba-aZ \aZbfgh]h mkbe_gby ]b^jhebaZ ih dZlbhgm b ih Zgbhgm kh \f_klgh]h ]b^jhebaZ \ \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ lZd`_ g_\hafh`gh kbgl_ab jh\Zlv dZj[hgZlu Zexfbgby ojhfZ III `_e_aZ III kmevnb^ ojh fZ III g_dhlhju_ ^jm]b_ kheb Ijb\_^_f _s_ h^bg ijbf_j kh\f_kl gh]h ]b^jhebaZ

2AlCl3 + 3Na2CO3 + 3HOH → 2Al(OH)3↓ + 3CO2↑+6NaCl, 2Al3+ + 3CO32- + 3HOH → 2Al(OH)3 + 3CO2.

Dhebq_kl\_ggu_ oZjZdl_jbklbdb ]b^jhebaZ. Dhebq_kl\_ggh ]b^jheba kheb oZjZdl_jbam_lky kl_i_gvx ]b^jhebaZK b dhgklZglhc ]b^jhebaZ D].

74

h = c] , k

]^_ k] – dhgp_gljZpby ]b^jhebah\Zgghc qZklb kheb k – h[sZy dhgp_g ljZpby jZkl\hj_gghc kheb

>ey ]b^jhebaZ ih Zgbhgm \ h[s_f \b^_ :– GHG < G: HG– ijb[eb`_ggh kijZ\_^eb\h

c(HA) c(OH− )

= K c(H

2O)= K] , ]^_ D] – dhgklZglZ ]b^jhebaZ.

c(A− )

Bkihevamy khhlghr_gb_ c(OH− ) =

Kw

ihemqZ_f

c(H+ )

K

=

Kw

beb K

=

Kw

.

]

]

KHA

Kdbk

A^_kv Ddbk – dhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb lhc dbkehlu dhlhjZy h[jZam _lky \ j_amevlZl_ ]b^jhebaZ

>ey ]b^jhebaZ ih dZlbhgm.+ + HOH <.2+ ++ ZgZeh]bqgh

c(KOH) c(H	+ )		= K] ,	K] =	K	w	.
c(K+ )
					Khkg

A^_kv Dhkg – dhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb lh]h hkgh\Zgby dhlhjh_ h[ jZam_lky \ j_amevlZl_ ]b^jhebaZ

>ey ]b^jhebaZ ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm

K+ + A– + HOH <.2+ +$

c(KOH) c(HA)	= K] ,	K] =	Kw
				.
c(K+ ) c(A− )			Kdbk Khkg

DZ`^Zy klmi_gv ]b^jhebaZ fgh]haZjy^guo bhgh\ oZjZdl_jbam_lky k\h_c D] LZd klmi_gqZlu_ dhgklZglu ]b^jhebaZ ^\moaZjy^gh]h Zgbh gZ ke_^mxsb_

	D] =	K w	,	D] =	Kw	, D] > D] ,
		K dbk			Kdbk

]^_ Dd b Dd – dhgklZglu ^bkkhpbZpbb dbkehlu ih b klmi_gb Ba khhlghr_gbc ke_^m_l q_f keZ[__ dbkehlZ hkgh\Zgb_ h[jZamxsZy

h[jZamxs__ khev l_f kbevg__ khev ]b^jhebam_lky b dhgklZglZ ]b^jhebaZ __ [hevr_ =b^jheba – ijhp_kk wg^hl_jfbq_kdbc ihwlhfm ijb ih\ur_gbb l_fi_jZlmju D] m\_ebqb\Z_lky

75

>ey ]b^jhebaZ ih dZlbhgm beb ih Zgbhgm aZ\bkbfhklv f_`^m h b k hibku\Z_lky \ujZ`_gb_f ZgZeh]bqguf aZdhgm jZa[Z\e_gby Hkl\Zev^Z

D] ≈ ch2 beb h ≈	K] ,
	c

l _ jZa[Z\e_gb_ jZkl\hjZ kheb mkbeb\Z_l __ ]b^jheba

?keb khev ]b^jhebam_lky h^gh\j_f_ggh b ih dZlbhgm b ih Zgbh gm lh dhgp_gljZpby kheb \ jZkl\hj_ ijZdlbq_kdb g_ \eby_l gZ h:

h ≈ D]

< khhl\_lkl\bb k ijbgpbihf E_ RZl_ev_ ]b^jheba ih dZlbhgm mkbeb\Z_lky h m\_ebqb\Z_lky ijb ^h[Z\e_gbb hkgh\Zgby d jZkl\hjm kheb Z ]b^jheba ih Zgbhgm mkbeb\Z_lky ijb ^h[Z\e_gbb dbkehlu

<hijhku ^ey kZfhklhyl_evghc ih^]hlh\db

Obfbq_kdh_ jZ\gh\_kb_

1.DZdh_ khklhygb_ j_Zdpbhgghc kbkl_fu gZau\Z_lky obfbq_kdbf jZ\gh\_kb_f"

2.DZd hij_^_eblv fhf_gl gZklmie_gby obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby"

3.Fh`gh eb kqblZlv ihklhygkl\h dhgp_gljZpbc j_Z]_glh\ \ kbkl_f_ ^hdZaZl_evkl\hf bklbgghklb obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby"

4.Qlh lZdh_ dhgklZglZ obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby" DZdh\ __ nbabq_ kdbc kfuke"

5.AZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdb_ \ujZ`_gby dhgklZgl jZ\gh\_kby ^ey

kbkl_f

Z HCl ] + O ] ↔2Cl2 ] + 2H2O ] [ Fe d + 3Cl ] ↔ 2FeCl d

6.DZdh\h \ebygb_ l_fi_jZlmju ^Z\e_gby dhgp_gljZpbb b ijbkml kl\by dZlZebaZlhjZ gZ \_ebqbgm dhgklZglu obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_ kby"

7.DZdh\h \ebygb_ l_fi_jZlmju ^Z\e_gby dhgp_gljZpbb b ijbkml kl\by dZlZebaZlhjZ gZ khklhygb_ obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby"

8.Knhjfmebjmcl_ ijbgpbi E_-RZl_ev_

9.< dZdmx klhjhgm kf_klblky jZ\gh\_kb_ NO ] + O ] ↔ 2NO2 ] ; ∆H0 = – d>` ijb Z mf_gvr_gbb ^Z\e_gby [ \\_^_gbb \ kbk l_fm dbkehjh^Z \ ih\ur_gbb l_fi_jZlmju"

10.< dZdhf gZijZ\e_gbb ijhbahc^_l kf_s_gb_ jZ\gh\_kby

Fe3O d + 4H ] ↔ 3Fe d + 4H2O ]

ijb Z \\_^_gbb \ kbkl_fm \h^hjh^Z [ \\_^_gbb \ kbkl_fm ijh dZe_ggh]h hdkb^Z dZevpby \ m\_ebq_gbb ^Z\e_gby"

76

11.DZdb_ j_Zdpbb hlghkylky d nhlhobfbq_kdbf"

12.Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju g_jZa\_l\e_gguo b jZa\_l\e_gguo p_iguo j_Zdpbc

13.DZdh\h agZq_gb_ nhlhobfbq_kdbo j_Zdpbc ^ey `b\hc ijbjh^u"

JZkl\hju we_dljheblh\

14.< q_f khklhbl kmsghklv l_hjbb we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb"

15.Hl q_]h aZ\bkbl jZkiZ^ gZ bhgu \ ijhp_kk_ jZkl\hj_gby \_s_kl\ \ \h^_"

16.JZaebqZxlky eb f_oZgbafu ^bkkhpbZpbb ijb jZkl\hj_gbb \ \h^_ \_s_kl\ k bhgguf b dh\Ze_glguf lbiZfb k\ya_c"

17.Qlh lZdh_ ^bwe_dljbq_kdZy ihklhyggZy jZkl\hjbl_ey b dZdh\h __ \ebygb_ gZ ijhp_kk ^bkkhpbZpbb"

18.< q_f aZdexqZ_lky dZq_kl\_ggh_ jZaebqb_ ijhp_kkh\ ^bkkhpbZpbb kbevguo b keZ[uo we_dljheblh\"

19.DZd fh`gh dhebq_kl\_ggh hoZjZdl_jbah\Zlv ^bkkhpbZpbx we_dljheblh\"

20.Qlh oZjZdl_jbam_l dhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb we_dljheblZ"

21.Hl dZdbo nZdlhjh\ aZ\bkbl kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb keZ[h]h we_dljheblZ"

22.DZdh\Z k\yav f_`^m kl_i_gvx ^bkkhpbZpbb b dhgp_gljZpb_c keZ [h]h we_dljheblZ"

23.Ihq_fm ^ey oZjZdl_jbklbdb ^bkkhpbZpbb kbevguo we_dljheblh\ ijbf_gyxl l_jfbg dZ`msZyky kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb?

24.Qlh lZdh_ Zdlb\ghklv b dhwnnbpb_gl Zdlb\ghklb"

25.>Zcl_ hij_^_e_gby dbkehl hkgh\Zgbc b khe_c k lhqdb aj_gby l_h jbb we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb

26.GZah\bl_ kbevgu_ hkgh\Zgby b kbevgu_ dbkehlu

27.DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z ]b^jhdkb^h\ ih i_ jbh^Zf b ]jmiiZf I_jbh^bq_kdhc kbkl_fu"

28.< dZdmx klhjhgm kf_klblky jZ\gh\_kb_ ^bkkhpbZpbb mdkmkghc db kehlu ijb ^h[Z\e_gbb Z Zp_lZlZ gZljby [ \h^u \ oehjh\h^h jh^Z ] ]b^jhdkb^Z gZljby"

29.>h[Z\e_gb_f dZdbo \_s_kl\ fh`gh Z mkbeblv beb [ hkeZ[blv ^bkkhpbZpbx ZffbZdZ \ \h^ghf jZkl\hj_"

30.DZdb_ we_dljheblu ^bkkhpbbjmxl klmi_gqZlh"Ihq_fm \_ebqbgu dhgklZgl dZ`^hc ihke_^mxs_c klmi_gb ^bkkhpbZpbb j_adh mf_gvrZxlky"

77

>bkkhpbZpby \h^u <h^hjh^guc ihdZaZl_ev

31.DZdh\Z \aZbfhk\yav f_`^m dhgp_gljZpbyfb bhgh\ ]b^jhdkhgby b ]b^jhdkb^-bhgh\ \ \h^guo jZkl\hjZo"

32.Qlh gZau\Z_lky \h^hjh^guf ]b^jhdkb^guf ihdZaZl_e_f"

33.< dZdbo _^bgbpZo ke_^m_l \ujZ`Zlv dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ ijb jZk q_l_ jG jHG"

34.DZdb_ \_s_kl\Z fh]ml kem`blv bg^bdZlhjZfb" DZdh\u hdjZkdb eZdfmkZ n_ghenlZe_bgZ b f_lbeh\h]h hjZg`_\h]h \ jZkl\hjZo db kehl b s_ehq_c"

35.I_j_qbkebl_ mkeh\by ijb dhlhjuo j_Zdpbb h[f_gZ \ jZkl\hjZo ijhl_dZxl ijZdlbq_kdb ^h dhgpZ

36.GZibrbl_ \ bhggh-fhe_dmeyjghc nhjf_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \ jZk l\hjZo f_`^m

Z oehjb^hf dZevpby b ]b^jhdZj[hgZlhf gZljby [ nhknZlhf dZevpby b kheyghc dbkehlhc \ f_^guf dmihjhkhf b k_jh\h^hjh^hf

=b^jheba khe_c

37.DZdh\u f_oZgbafu ]b^jhebaZ kheb ih dZlbhgm b ih Zgbhgm"

38.DZdb_ nZdlhju \ebyxl gZ ijhp_kk ]b^jhebaZ kheb"

39.DZdh\h \ebygb_ ijbjh^u kheb dhgp_gljZpbb kheb \ jZkl\hj_ l_fi_jZlmju b jG kj_^u gZ kl_i_gv ]b^jhebaZ"

40.>h[Z\e_gb_f dZdbo \_s_kl\ fh`gh Z hkeZ[blv beb [ mkbeblv ijhp_kk ]b^jhebaZ kheb"Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju

41.DZdhc fh`_l [ulv j_Zdpby kj_^u \ \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ kheb h[jZah \Zgghc keZ[uf hkgh\Zgb_f b keZ[hc dbkehlhc"

42.DZdh\Z j_Zdpby kj_^u \ \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ Z kmevnb^Z Zffhgby [ bh^b^Z Zexfbgby

\ kmevnblZ dZeby"

43.GZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdb_ \ujZ`_gby ^ey dhgklZgl ]b^jhebaZ Z Zp_lZlZ gZljby [ oehjb^Z Zffhgby

44.DZdb_ bhgu ih^\_j]Zxlky klmi_gqZlhfm ]b^jhebam" Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju

45.< dZdbo kemqZyo ]b^jheba kheb h[jZah\Zgghc keZ[uf hkgh\Zgb_f b keZ[hc dbkehlhc ijhl_dZ_l ^h dhgpZ" Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju ihevamykv lZ[ebp_c jZkl\hjbfhklb

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Ijhba\_^_gb_ jZkl\hjbfhklb

46.Qlh gZau\Z_lky ijhba\_^_gb_f jZkl\hjbfhklb IJ"

47.>ey dZdbo \_s_kl\ ijbf_gbfh ihgylb_ IJ"

48.GZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdh_ \ujZ`_gb_ IJ ^ey nlhjb^Z dZevpby

Baf_gblky eb \_ebqbgZ IJ CaF2 ijb ^h[Z\e_gbb \ gZkus_gguc jZkl\hj CaF2 ke_^mxsbo \_s_kl\

Z kmoh]h nlhjb^Z dZeby [ kmoh]h oehjb^Z dZevpby"

DZd ^h[Z\e_gb_ wlbo \_s_kl\ \eby_l gZ jZkl\hjbfhklv CaF2?

49.< dZdbo _^bgbpZo ke_^m_l \ujZ`Zlv dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ ijb jZk q_l_ IJ"

50.DZdh\u mkeh\by h[jZah\Zgby hkZ^dh\"<k_]^Z eb \uiZ^Z_l hkZ^hd ijb keb\Zgbb jZkl\hjh\ ih\Zj_gghc kheb b gbljZlZ k_j_[jZ"

51.KjZ\gb\ \_ebqbgu IJ hp_gbl_ \hafh`ghklv ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbc Z) AgCl + KI = AgI + KCl;

[) AgI + KCl = AgCl + KI;

IJ $J&O –10 IJ $J, –16.

52.Ihq_fm hkZ^db khe_c keZ[uo dbkehl h[uqgh jZkl\hjyxlky \ kbev guo dbkehlZo"

53.Ihq_fm kmevnb^ f_^b,,\ hlebqb_ hl kmevnb^Z fZj]ZgpZ,,g_ jZkl\hjbf \ kheyghc dbkehl_"

AZ^Zqb ^ey j_r_gby

178.GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb ke_^mx

sbo \_s_kl\+123, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH, Ba(OH)2, Al(OH)3, Al2(SO4)3, KHSO4, Ba(OH)NO3, Fe(OH)(NO3)2.

179.GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \ fhe_dmeyjghc b bhggh- fhe_dmeyjghc nhjfZo ijhl_dZxsbo \ \h^guo jZkl\hjZo f_`^m ke_^mxsbfb kh_^bg_gbyfb

Z) BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 : [) Fe(OH)SO4 + BaCl2 : \) CaCO3 + CH3COOH : ]) Ca(HCO3)2 + HNO3 : ^) KHS + H2SO4 : _)AgCl + NaI :

`) FeCl3 + Na4[Fe(CN)6] : a) Fe(NO3)2 + K3[Fe(CN)6] :

180.Hij_^_ebl_ fheyjgu_ dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ \ ke_^mxsbo \h^guo

jZkl\hjZo F HNO3; 0,1M H2SO4; 0,01M Ba(OH)2; 0,2M AlCl3; 0,2M Al2(SO4)3.

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181.Kl_i_gv we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb +122 \ F \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ jZ\gZ JZkkqblZcl_ dhgp_gljZpbb qZklbp G+, NO −2 , HNO2 \ wlhf jZkl\hj_

182.Q_fm jZ\gZ i_j\Zy dhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb m]hevghc dbkehlu _k

eb kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb __ ih i_j\hc klmi_gb \ jZkl\hj_ kh^_j `Zs_f–3 fhev e dbkehlu jZ\gZ

183.Ijb dZdhc fheyjghc dhgp_gljZpbb mdkmkghc dbkehlu __

[m^_l gZoh^blvky \ jZkl\hj_ \ g_ijh^bkkhpbbjh\Zgghf \b^_"

D KH3COOH) = 1,8 · 10–5.

184.Hij_^_ebl_ dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ G+ \ F jZkl\hjZo ke_^mxsbo

dbkehl +&O +2SO4, HCOOH, CH3COOH. K(HCOOH) = 1,8 · 10–4; K(CH3COOH) = 1,8· 10–5.

185.DZd baf_gblky dhgp_gljZpby G+ b kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb mdkmkghc dbkehlu _keb \ e F&+3&22+jZkl\hjblv e oehjh\h ^hjh^Z mkeh\by ghjfZevgu_ Baf_g_gb_f h[t_fZ jZkl\hjZ ij_ g_[j_qv

186.Hij_^_eblv dhgp_gljZpbx bhgh\ G+ b kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb md

kmkghc dbkehlu \ __ jZkl\hj_ ρ ] kf3). D(CH3COOH) = = 1,8·10 –5.

187.Hij_^_ebl_S+ jZkl\hjh\ \ dhlhjuo dhgp_gljZpbb G+ \ fhev e jZ\gu Z [–3 \–11.

188.Hij_^_ebl_ S+ b S2+ jZkl\hjh\ \ dhlhjuo dhgp_gljZpbb HG–

\ fhev e jZ\gu Z [–5 \ ,4 ·10–12 .

189.Hij_^_ebl_S+ ke_^mxsbo \h^guo jZkl\hjh\ Z F+2SO4;

[ F%D 2+2.

190.Hij_^_ebl_ S+ \h^gh]h jZkl\hjZ k_jghc dbkehlu _keb w(H2SO4) = iehlghklv jZkl\hjZ ρ ] kf3.

191.Hij_^_ebl_S+ bS2+ \h^gh]h jZkl\hjZ kh^_j`Zs_]h fhev e

NH3.H2O.

192.Hij_^_ebl_S+ bS2+ \h^gh]h jZkl\hjZ mdkmkghc dbkehlu _keb w(CH3&22+ b iehlghklv jZkl\hjZ jZ\gZ ] kf3.

193.<uqbkebl_ dhgklZglm ^bkkhpbZpbb keZ[hc h^ghhkgh\ghc dbkeh lu _keb jZkl\hj kh^_j`Zsbc fhev e dbkehlu bf__l pH = 4,15.

194.Hij_^_ebl_SH b pOH jZkl\hjZ kh^_j`Zs_]h fhev e \blZ fbgZ C Zkdhj[bgh\hc dbkehlu DhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb Zkdhj

[bgh\hc dbkehlu keZ[Zy h^ghhkgh\gZy hj]Zgbq_kdZy dbkehlZ jZ\gZ .10–5.

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