№1.

Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves.

Each style, however, can be recoquized by one or more leading features which are especially conspicuous. For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized.

A style of language can be fined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter-coordinated language means intended to full-fill a specific function of communication and aiming at a defined effect. Style of language is a historical category.

The English literary system has evolved a number of styles easily distinguishable one from another. They are not homogeneous and fall into several variants of having some central point of resemblance or better to say. All integrated by the invariant  - i.e. the abstract ideal system.

They are:

1) Official(documents and papers);

2) Scientific (brochures, articles, other scientific publications);

3) Publicistic (essay, public speech);

4) Newspaper style(mass media);

5) Belles-lettres style(genre of creative writing);

Each of mentioned here styles  can be expressed in two forms: written and oral.

Stylistics is a sides that examines the complex of stylistically marked elements of any language level.

1) scientific style is employed in professional communication to convey some information. It’s most conspicuous feature is the abundance of terms denoting objects, phenomena and processes characteristics of some particular field of science and technique. Also precision clarity logical cohesion.

2) Official style is the most conservative one. It uses syntactical constructions and archaic words. Emotiveness is banned out of this style.

3) Publicistic style is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader in accordance with the argumentation of the author.

4) Newspaper style - special graphical means are used to attract the readers attention.

5) Belles-lettres style - the richest register of communication besides its own language means, other styles can be used besides informative and persuasive functions, belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader are aesthetically.

№ 2

Styl Class-n of the Eng Voc. In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word-stock of any lang, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected. A special branch of linguistic science -lexicology-has done much to classify voc. The whole of the word-stock as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloq layer. The literary voc consists of the following groups: 1. common literary (in writ, polished sp); 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words. The colloquial voc: 1. com-mon "colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloq coinages. The common literary, neutral, common colloq wrds = standard Engl. voc. Neutral words, form the bulk of the Engl voc, are used in both literary and colloq lang., source of synonymy and polysemy. Cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring. Common literary words are mainly used in writing and in polished speech. A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted. Feature of a term is its direct relevance to the set of terms used in a particular science, directly connected with the concept it denotes. Belong to the style of lang of science. Also -in newspaper style, in publicistic and other. If used in the belles-lettres style- become a SD, is used in such a way that 2 meanings are materialized simultaneously. Function of terms is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose lang would naturally contain special words and expressions. Many words lost their quality as terms  passed into the common literary voc, process of "de-terminization". (Ex 'radio', 'television'). Poetic - are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words, aim at producing an elevated effect, don’t easily yield to polysemy. Used to evoke emotive meanings. Through constant repetition gradually becomes hackneyed, fail to evoke an aesthetic effect. Poetic wrds are not freely built.The commonest means is by compounding (ex: young-eyed). Can be understandable only to a limited number of readers. Archaisms. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the lang, disappear leaving no trace of their existence. Come across A., 3 stages in the aging process of wrds: 1 obsolescent- w becomes rarely used, gradually passing out of general use, morph forms belong to this category (pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine, fr loans – garniture>furniture). 2 obsolete- have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized (methinks (=it seems to me). 3 archaic proper- no longer recognizable in ModE, were in use in OE. The boarder lines- not distinct. Historical w- notions of some obj of bygone period, remain as terms, have no syn, while archaic have. Archaic used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels.Function of A in official doc-s is terminological in character. A create elevated effect. Barbarisms- words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into Engl. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms (chic=stylish). Distinguish B & foreign w. B became fact of the Eng lang, foreign don’t belong, not registered in Eng dictionaries. In printed works- foreign are italicized to show alien nature. Aims of B & foreign- to supply local colour, to build up a SD of the speech. Often used in the belles-lettres and the publicistic style. B is a Sd if it displays interaction b\w dif meanings. Lit coinages (+Nonce-w). =neologisms. Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. the need to designate new concepts. Terminological coinages. Styl coinages- when creators seek expressive utte­rance. Appear in the publicistic style- newspaper headlines. Many coinages disappear, others leave traces in the voc because they are fixed in the literature of their time. Most of the literary-bookish coinages are built by means of affix­ation ('gangdom') and word compounding. Also conversion, derivation and change of meaning, used to coin new terms in which new mean­ings are imposed on old words. The blending of two words into one- cinemactress (cinema+actress), smog- (smoke+ fog). Nonce-word, i.e. a word coined to suit one particular occasion. Used to designate evaluation of a thing, but generally drop out of the lang (was wived, uncled, cousined). New wrds may be coined by means of contraction & abbrev. (TRUD =time remaining until dive). Slang (rot=nonsense, the cat’s pyjamas=the correct thing).- lang of a highly colloq type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new wrds or of current wrds used in some special sense. Any new coinage that hasn’t gained recognition & hasn’t yet been received into standard Engl is branded as slang. Many slang w-s have now become units of standard E. (word kid (=child)- 19c low slang, now a colloq unit of the E/ literary l-ge). Feature: it never grows stale, otherwise is replaced by a new slangism. It is suggested that the term 'slang' should be used for those forms of the E. voc-ry which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonet-ly, morph-ly or lex-ly. Slang stands above all the laws of grammar. Though it is regarded by some purists as a l-ge that stands below standard E., it is highly praised nowadays as "vivid", "more flexible", "more picturesque", "richer in vocabulary" and so on. In the non-literary voc-ry - jargonisms.-exist in almost every l-ge and, aim is to preserve secrecy within some social group. J are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Most of the J are incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. J-ms are social in character. Not regional. Almost any social group of people has its own jargon ( jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army=military slang; the jargon of sportsmen). Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code, is easily understood but regarded as something not quite regular. J & slang differ from ordinary lang mainly in their voc (structure of the sent-s & morphology- unchanged). Smt j-ms migrate into other social groups and smt become recognized in the lit lang. Professionalisms are the words used in a definite profession or by ppl connect-ed by common. They commonly indicate some working process. Prof-s are correlated to terms. Terms are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. Prof-s are special words in the non-literary layer of the E. voc-ry, whereas terms belong to the literary layer of words. Terms are well-known to ordinary people and enter the neutral layer of the voc-ry. Prof-s generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interests. Like terms, prof-s do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic. Prof-s should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, prof-s do not aim at secrecy. Prof-s are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. Dialectal wrds- which in the process of integration of the Engl nat lan­g remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is gener­ally confined to a definite locality. From Scot & northern dialects. Southern d, used in liter for styl purpose. Dw are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles, function- to charac personalities through speech. Dw unlike profess-ms, are confined in their use to a definite locality. Vulgarisms- expressions of an abusive character (damn, goddam). Used in conversation out of habit. V will never acquire the status of standard Eng voc, and will remain on the outskirts. Function is (almost the same as that of interjections) to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger. Can be found only in emotive prose, in the direct speech of the char-rs. Colloq coinages (nonce wds) - unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous. Not all are fixed in dictionaries. Built not by affixation (like liter coinages), but based on semant change in wds (can be revealed through styl anal). One hardly notices the process leading to the appearance of a new meaning. Because they are not new words but new meanings of existing words. (Sophisticated= wise oversubtleadulterated corrupted). Cause- ironic touch? Can be built with the help of aff, but few of them. Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life.

№3

Metaphor

A metaphor is the interaction between the logical and contextual logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them.

Similar to all lexical stylistic devices metaphor may be genuine, that is original, invented by the writer, or trite, that is hackneyed, often used in the language.

The metaphor suggests an analogy. An implied analogy and likeness to concrete objects makes abstract ideas more concrete, complex ideas more simple and the thoughts more comprehensible.

The metaphor may be expressed through nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

The noun metaphor may consist of one word or may have an attribute in the form of an “of-phrase”. The verb-metaphor is very emphatic as it throws the metaphorical light on the subject of the sentence too. Metaphors expressed by adjectives and adverbs are called metaphorical epithets and will be dealt with in the chapter on the epithet.

Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image by adding a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors.

e.g. But there was no May morning in his cowardly human heart.