2. Classification of pronouns.

Pronouns are difficult to classify, since they include words very different lexically, syntactically and grammatically. Scholars prefer the semantic classification, which suggests the following division:

1. personal (I, you, he, she, it, we, they,);

2. possessive (my, your, his, her, its, our, their);

3. demonstrative (this, that, such, (the)same);

4. reflexive (also called emphatic) (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves);

5. interrogative (who, whose, what, which);

6. relative (who, whose, which, that);

7. indefinite (some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one);

8. negative (no, nobody, no one, nothing);

9. defining (all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything);

10. reciprocal (each other, one another).

3. Grammatical categories.

Morphologically, pronouns represent quite a diverse group. Thus, the category of case is a property of the personal pronouns, in which one may observe the distinct opposition “nominative case – objective case”. The indefinite-personal pronoun one and derivatives with the components -body and -one are also marked for the case category, since they demonstrate the opposition of the common and the possessive cases.

The category of number marks the demonstrative pronouns, the indefinite-personal pronoun one and the defining pronoun other as well as the reflexive pronoun yourself.

Adverb

1. Definition.

2. Semantic classification.

3. Morphological properties

The adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs.

According to morphemic structure, adverbs fall into six groups:

1. Adverbs formed from derived and base adjectives by adding suffix -ly: evenly, glamorously, beautifully, etc.

2. Those formed by adding the derivational suffix –wise to nouns (otherwise, weather-wise).

3. Adverbs formed by the addition of the derivational suffix -ward(s) (toward(s), forward(s), backward(s), etc.). Most adverbs of this group have two forms, one with the final s and one without. The forms without s are homonymous with adjectives (a forward estimate, he moved forward).

4. Adverbs, formed by combining the pronouns some, aye, every and no with a limited number of nouns or pronominal adverbs, such as someplace, anyway, everywhere, nowhere, etc.

5. Words, that are formally identical with prepositions: about, around, up, down, below, above, over, etc.

6. The miscellaneous class of adverbs that have no formal signals at all to distinguish them in isolation. They are classed as adverbs because of their position in the sentence (always, often, now, then, here, there, etc. Some members of this type are homonyms of other parts of speech (home, late, fast, loud, early, etc.).

2. Semantic classification.

As a rule, semantically, adverbs are divided into the three large classes: qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.

Qualitative adverbs express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities. In the majority of cases they have a formal property: they are derived from adjectives by means of the suffix –ly, with the exception of the so-called flat adverbs well, fast, low, hard whose form coincides with that of adjectives.

Qualitative adverbs include words of degree. These are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing measure, or gradational evaluation of qualities (very, comparatively, rather, a unbearably, etc.

Circumstantial adverbs are divided into notional and functional. The functional circumstantional adverbs are words of pronominal nature that include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause and consequence (now, here, when, where, thus, why, etc.

Circumstantional adverbs include three basic groups: 1) adverbs of place (here, near, upstairs, forward); 2) adverbs of time (now, today, tomorrow, lately);

Adverbs of frequency (always, seldom, often, never).