Vocabulary notes

superstition

entire

operant conditioning

formation

pigeon

cage

to deliver

to discover

counter-clockwise

to push

to toss

to shed light

bowler

to release

shoulder

alley

to enjoy popularity

to gain popularity

- примета

- весь, полностью

- оперантный рефлекс

- формирование

- голубь

- клетка

- доставлять

- обнаруживать

- против часовой стрелки

- толкать

- подбрасывать

- перен. проливать свет

- игрок в боулинг

- отпускать

- плечо

- дорожка (в боулинге)

- пользоваться популярностью

- приобретать популярность

B. F. Skinner is perhaps the most famous psychologist after Sigmund Freud. B. F. Skinner's entire system is based on operant conditioning.

One of Skinner's most famous and interesting experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed several hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior". He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing. They continued to perform the same actions: one bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly pushed its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly.

Skinner suggested that the pigeons believed that they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their "rituals". Skinner thought that the experiment also shed light on human behaviour.

The experiment demonstrates how superstitions form and function. The bird behaves as if there were a relation between its behaviour and the presentation of food. There are many analogies in human behavior. Rituals for changing one's luck at cards are good examples. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if he were controlling it by twisting and turning his arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviours have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon a ball halfway down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing - or, more strictly speaking, did something else.

Skinner enjoyed considerable popularity during the 1960's and even into the 70's. But both the humanistic movement in the clinical world, and the cognitive movement in the experimental world, were gaining popularity

EXERCISE 1

Questions to the text.

1. What is Skinner's system based on?

2. What was one of the most famous Skinner's experiments?

3. Who was placed in the experimental cage?

4. What and when was delivered to the cage?

5. What was the delivery of food associated with?

6. What actions did the birds perform during the food delivery?

7. What did the pigeons believe in as Skinner suggested?

8. What does the experiment demonstrate?

9. What influences the bird's behaviour?

10. Are there analogies of such superstition in human behaviour?

11. When was Skinner popular?

12. What movements became more popular than behaviourism?

13. Did Skinner admit his failure?

SOME QUOTES

Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.

Skinner B. F.

I did not direct my life. I didn't design it. I never made decisions. Things always came up and made them for me. That's what life is.

Skinner B. F.

UNIT 4. COGNITIVISM

WARMING -UP

1. What does the term “cognition” mean?

2. What is cognitive psychology?

3. Do you know the names of any cognitive psychologists?

4. What is Déjà vu?

Text 1 Cognitive Movement in Psychological Thought of the 20th Century

VOCABULARY NOTES

artificial intelligence

to retain

problem solving