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precedes that of the predicate verb. The Perfect ing-form is often placed before the predicate verb.

e.g. Having duly arrived in Scotland, he took a train the next day to Manchester.

Having cut her dirty bandage, John started tying her hand. Having gradually wasted his small fortune, he preferred to

live on the generosity of others rather than work. Francis was there before me, having come by the morning ж train. Norman, having looked at his watch, slapped the play-script

shut and put it on his chair.

As has been said, the subject of the ing-form is usually the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence (see the examples above). Occasionally, however, we come across instances of the ing-form whose subject is expressed elsewhere, for instance, by one of the secondary parts of the sentence.

e.g. Walking beside his friend, it seemed to Norman that life was not so bad after all.

But back in his office, looking down at his desk, his sense of wellbeing left him.

I love you like hell, Bridget. And, loving you like hell, you can't expect me to enjoy seeing you get married to a potbellied, pompous little peer who loses his temper when he doesn't win at tennis.

But searching for i's not dotted, t's uncrossed in his letter, it came to him that all he had written were lies, big lies poured over the paper like a thick syrup.

The above use of the ing-form is not common. Since usually the subject of the ing-form is the same person or thing as the subject of the sentence, it is not easy to identify the subject of the ing-form in sentences of the above kind. Hence, the term dangling or unattached is applied to this ing-form in grammar.

The ing-form denoting a second action in the kind of sentences illustrated above is typical of literary style where its use is quite extensive, but it is hardly ever used in spoken English.

However, the ing-form denoting a second action is quite common in spoken English after certain predicate groups. Here belong

218

Verbs

the verbs to spend and to waste when they are followed by the noun time or some other expressions of time, and also after to have a good (hard, jolly, eic.) time, to have difficulty, to have trouble and some others.

e.g. She did little typing herself, but spent her time correcting the work of the four girls she employed. Are you going to

spend your life saying "ought", like the

rest of our moralists? She told me that she would often spend a whole morning

working upon a single page. Well, I'm sure I don't know why I waste time cooking a big

meal for this family if no one wants to eat it. He had a good time dancing at the club. They had difficulty finding his address.

In spoken English there is another sentence pattern in which the ing-form denoting a second action is also quite common. The sentence pattern includes the verb to be followed by an indication of place: to be here (there), to be in, to be in the room (kitchen, garden, office, etc.), to be out, to be upstairs (downstairs) and the like.

e.g. Mother is out shopping.

Pat is downstairs talking to Father. Miss Smith was in her office typing.

(For comparison with the infinitive see § 185.)

The ing-form as Object

§214. The ing-form may be used as a direct object of a verb. It is lexically dependent in this function and found after the following verbs: to admit, to avoid, to begin, to cease, to consider, to continue, to delay, to deny, to endure, to enjoy, to escape, to fin1 ish, to forget, to give up, to go on, to hate, to intend, to keep, tti keep on, to leave off, to like, to love, to mention, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), to neglect, to postpone, to prefer, to propose (- to suggest), to put off, to quit, to recall, to recollect, to regret, to remember, to resent, to resume, to risk, to start, to stop, to suggest, to try and some others.

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e.g. English grammar is very difficult and few writers have avoided making mistakes in it. The rest of us had finished

eating, but Cave had cut himself another slice of cheese.

Roger went on speaking with energy, calculation and warmth. He kept on smiling at her and speaking. He drank his beer and resumed reading his paper. I was in low spirits and even considered going away. David Rubin did not much like being called Professor.

In addition to the verbs mentioned in the list above, the ingform as object is used after certain modal phrases in the negative form: can't bear, can't face, can't fancy, can't imagine, can't resist, can't stand and can't help.

e.g. They can't bear being humiliated.

He could not face being talked about.

Later in the day she couldn't resist calling Mrs Spark to find out the details of the tragedy. He couldn't help asking me:

"Isn't there anything else you can do for Roger?"

Besides, the ing-form is also used after the set phrase to feel like.

e.g. He felt like giving up the whole affair.

I didn't feel like talking to him after what had happened.

The subject of the ing-form in this function is the same as that of the predicate verb.

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 186 and 237.)

§ 215. The ing-form may also serve as a direct object of an adjective. It is lexically dependent in this case and found only after two adjectives — busy and worth.

e.g. The foreman was busy shouting orders and instructions.

The children were busy doing all the things they had been told not to do.

He thought my idea was worth trying. It was not a witticism worth repeating.

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 187 and 238.)

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§ 216. As a prepositional object of a verb, the ing-form is also lexically dependent. It is found after verbs that take a prepositional object. These verbs may be divided into three groups:

1)verbs followed by one prepositional object,

2)verbs followed by a non-prepositional object and a preposi tional object,

3)verbs followed by two prepositional objects.

I. The verbs of the first group are closely connected with a preposition whose meaning is often weakened. The following is the list of the most commonly used verbs: to admit to, to agree to, to aim at, to apologize for, to approve of, to believe in, to bother about, to care for, to come of, to come round to, to complain of, to confess to, to consist of/in, to count on, to despair of, to dream of, to end in, to forget about, to feel up to, to get to, to get down to, to go back to, to grumble about, to hesitate about, to insist on, to lead to, to long for, to mean by, to persist in, to plan on, to reckon on, . to refrain from, to return to, to result in/from, to save from, to succeed in, to take to, to talk of, to tell of, to think of/about, to threaten with, to worry about and some others.

e.g. What did she mean by boasting like that?

I didn't think twice about telling her: we had no secrets.

It does not seem impossible that the biologist will in the future succeed in creating life in his laboratory.

The readers of a book insist on knowing the reasons of action. Let's get down to signing the papers.

Towards the end of the summer, they visited me together several times, and then Norman took to coming alone.

I had never been on an aeroplane and worried about being strapped down.

I must apologize for having interrupted a conference.

Here also belong certain set phrases, such as: to find excuses for, to have no doubt about, to look forward to, to lose time in, to make a point of, to plead guilty to, to take pride in and some others.

e.g. I took pride in making my lodgings pretty and comfortable. He was taking risks in speaking in that tone to them. I expect you are looking forward to seeing your fiance again?

Special attention should be given to set phrases with the verb to be which are treated as verb equivalents.

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e.g. Would you be up to playing with us this afternoon?

She was just on the point of going away when Betty Vane came in.

"Would you be in favour of investigating the matter?" Monty asked.

The subject of the action expressed by the ing-form is generally the person denoted by the subject of the sentence (see the examples above). But occasionally we find an ing-complex (see "Verbs", § 66).

e.g.'I don't in the least object to your playing practical jokes on other people. She complained about the

porridge being lumpy.

The use of an ing-complex seems to be generally required by the verbs to approve of, to disapprove of, to grumble about and some others. (We usually approve of or grumble about some other people's actions — hence the agent of the ing-form is expected to be a person or thing other than the one denoted by the subject of the sentence.)

e.g. He could not approve of Guy's hiding himself away. We can't grumble about things being dull, can we?

II. Verbs requiring a non-prepositional and prepositional object are in general less numerous. Besides, not all of them take an ingform as their prepositional object (e.g. to explain something to somebody, to dictate something to somebody, etc.).

Of the verbs taking a non-prepositional and prepositional object expressed by an ing-form, the most commonly occurring are: to accuse somebody of, to amuse somebody with, to ask somebody about, to charge somebody with, to coax somebody into, to give something to, to give something for, to invite somebody into, to keep somebody from, to mutter something about, to persuade somebody into, to remind somebody of, to restrict oneself to, to save somebody from, to say something about, to stop somebody from, to suspect somebody of, to talk somebody into/out of, to tell something about and some others.

e.g. I am prepared for anyone to accuse me of being cowardly.

It had been easy to coax Margaret into inviting the Morgans to stay with us for a week.

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Did she suspect them of trying to cheat her?

I hope you won't let Peg talk you out of joining me?

It is lack of imagination that prevents people from seeing things from any point of view but their own. Will you be

able to keep those fellows from making any more fuss?

Of all the prepositions there is one that acquires particular importance in this construction as it may be found with a considerable number of verbs and is, consequently, of frequent occurrence. It is the preposition for. It generally serves to indicate the cause of the action denoted by the predicate verb.

For is found after the following verbs: to blame somebody, to excuse somebody, to forgive somebody, to hate somebody, to like somebody, to love somebody, to pay somebody, to reprimand somebody, to reproach somebody, to scold somebody, to thank somebody and some others.

e.g. I thought you had just been blaming me for being neutral. I'm not going to reproach you for interrupting the rehearsal. I was going to thank you for looking after him till I came. The major reprimanded him for being late. He scolded me for not having let him know.

The subject of the injf-form in this sentence pattern is the person denoted by the direct object, as in She tried to talk him into doing it (see also the examples above).

After verbs of speaking we often find an ing-complex.

e.g. I told them about Gustav's wanting to come with me.

I said something about Jane being in love with him, but he would not talk about her. I muttered

something about its being a pity.

III. The number of verbs requiring two prepositional objects of which the second is an ing-form is limited. The ing-form is also introduced by the preposition for, as with some verbs above.

e.g. I entered the classroom and apologized to the teacher for being late.

I should have been vexed with you for thinking me such a fool.

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§ 217. The ing-form as a prepositional object is also found after various kinds of adjectives — adjectives proper, predicative adjectives and adjectivized participles. The most commonly occurring of them are: absorbed in, (un)accustomed to, afraid of, amused at, angry with, annoyed at, ashamed of, aware of, (in)capable of, careful about/in, careless of, certain of, clever at, (un)conscious of, content with, delighted at, different from, embarrassed at, excited about, far from, fond of, fortunate in, frightened of, furious at, given to, good (better) at, grateful for, happy in/at, interested in. Irritated at, keen on, miserable at, nice about, pleased at, proud of, responsible for, right in, scared at/of, set against, set on, sick of, skilled in/at, slow in, sorry for, successful in/at, sure of, surprised at, thankful for, tired of, touched at, upset at, (un)used to, worried about, wrong in, etc.

e.g. If only I were capable of doing that!

We were never very careful about taking precautions.

"You look for trouble, don't you?" "Only because I'm pretty certain of finding it.

" I was fairly content with letting things go as they were. Somehow I wasn't too interested in trying to get back into

that work.

I was tired of doing much the same thing every day. "I'm sorry for giving you so much trouble," she said. I felt that he was excited about showing me his new car. He was unconscious of Anna standing beside him.

For means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-form see "Verbs", § 166.

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 187 and 238.)

§ 218. The ing-form may serve as object of a verb in a special sentence pattern with it as a formal subject. The use of the ingform in this sentence pattern is found after a very limited number of verbs and set phrases (which are verb equivalents) but it is typical of spoken English.

e.g. He said to his wife: "It doesn't matter much being liked, for this kind of life."

When it comes down to getting a job with a living wage attached to it, he's prepared to put his theories in his pocket.

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She was, as her colleagues said, "good on paper", but when it came to speaking in committees she was so apprehensive that she spent sleepless hours the night before.

For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-form see § 166.

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 189 and 239.)

§ 219. The ing-form may be used as a direct object of an adjective in a sentence pattern with it as a formal subject. This kind of object is also lexically dependent — it regularly occurs after it is worth.

e.g. It is worth remembering that he has once been a boxer. It is worth finding it out.

Sometimes the ing-form is found after a number of other adjectives such as amusing, banal, comfortable, difficult, dreary, easy, great, hopeless, lovely, nice, odd, pleasant, strange, tough, useless, wonderful, etc.

e.g. It was difficult getting him to do it.

It won't be easy finding our way back. There's not much moon. It will be rather nice seeing him again. It was useless arguing with Jane.

But the ing-form occurs after these adjectives only in spoken English, and such sentences are often emotionally coloured. As a general rule, we find an infinitive here (see "Verbs", § 190).

For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-form see § 166.

§ 220. The ing-form is sometimes found in a sentence pattern with it as a formal object of the verbs to find, to make and to think. The formal it in this case is followed by an adjective.

e.g. He found it worth reminding her of her promise. He thought it very odd my leaving when I did.

For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-form see § 166.

(For comparison with the infinitive see § 191.)

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The ing-form as Subjective Predicative

§ 221. The ing-form as subjective predicative is lexically dependent. It is found after a limited number of verbs in the passive. These verbs are: to catch, to find, to hear, to leave, to notice, to report, to see, to set, to show, to watch.

e.g. I felt I had been caught boasting.

The baby was found sitting on the floor. The old woman was heard shrieking in short bursts like a • ship in the fog.

When the door closed, Monty and I were left looking at each other.

About that time a hurricane was reported moving out of the Caribbean in our direction.

Here also belong a few verbs after which the ing-form is introduced'by as. They are: to accept, to consider, to explain, to guarantee, to mention, to regard, to take, to treat, to understand. Here also belong the verbs to speak of and to think of which retain their prepositions in this sentence pattern.

e.g. The Browns did not entertain and were spoken of in the district as being "poor as church mice".

Janet and I became very friendly, and at school we were considered as going together.

The use of the ing-form as subjective predicative is not of frequent occurrence.

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 192 and 240.)

The ing-form as Objective Predicative

§ 222. The ing-form as objective predicative is lexically dependent — it is used after a number of transitive verbs in the active followed by an object which is expressed by a noun or a pronoun. The following are the most frequently used verbs taking a direct object: to call, to catch, to discover, to feel, to find, to hear, to get, to imagine, to keep, to leave, to (dis)like, to notice, to picture, to see, to send, to set, to stop, to watch, to want.

e.g. 1 felt him looking at me now and again.

When he arrived he found me reading Tom Jones.

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Just as I got to the end of the corridor, I heard my telephone ringing again.

Ellen had noticed me talking with the landlady. He saw me watching him. One afternoon in August I saw something that surprised me

and set me thinking.

This construction is also found after two verbs taking a prepositional object — to listen to and to look at.

e.g. We opened the door for a moment .and looked out at the windy night and listened to the trees groaning. He

looked at Jane wiping her tear-wet face.

Here also belong a few verbs after which the ing-form is introduced by as: to accept, to consider, to explain, to guarantee, to mention, to regard, to speak of, to take, to think of, to treat, to understand.

e.g. You took his statement as being quite in order.

He has spoken of your relatives as though he would never accept them as being his. We always thought of him as being "promising."

With all the above verbs, the object that precedes the ing-form is expressed by a noun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the objective case, and serves as subject of the action denoted by the ing-form. But there are a number of other verbs after which the object may be expressed either in the above described way or by a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun. These verbs are: to appreciate, to dread, to excuse, to fancy, to forget, to forgive, to hate, to have, to imagine, to mind, to miss, to pardon, to prevent, to recall, to remember, to resent, to (mis)understand and also can't bear, can't help and to catch sight of.

e.g. Forgive my (me) interrupting you, Mr Passant, but with a school record like yours I'm puzzled why you don't try for a university scholarship?

I appreciate your (you) coming to my defense. Do you recall Bayard's (Bayard) doing that?

(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 193 and 241.)

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The ing-form as Adverbial Modifier

§223. The ing-form can serve as an adverbial modifier of a verb. In this case it is preceded by a conjunction or a preposition which lend it adverbial meanings, such as time, concession, condition, attending circumstances, manner, cause and some others. The adverbial meaning of the ing-form is determined by the meaning of the preceding conjunction or preposition. The ing-form is not lexically dependent here — it may be used after any verb. For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-brm see "Verbs", § 166.

§ 224. The ing-form may be preceded by the conjunctions while, when, once, if, as though, as if, though, than, as well as and the correlative conjunctions as...as and not so...as.

While and when lend the ing-form the adverbial meaning of time, emphasizing the idea of simultaneousness of its action with that of the predicate verb. While shows that both actions are taking place at a given moment or period of time (a); when usually serves to express recurrent actions simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb (b).

e.g. a) He continued to speak while walking down the path.

The photograph showed himself, shielding his eyes against the sun while sitting on a swing.

b)She picked up Butler's heavy spectacles which she employed always when reading and put them on. Often, when boasting of his deceits, he sounded childlike and innocent.

The conjunctions as though and as if serve to show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence appears to be performing the action indicated by the ing-form: there is something in the manner or in the behaviour of the person that gives the impression that the action is being performed by him/her.

e.g. Lena gave me a very long look indeed as though seeing me

for the first time. Much of the afternoon I looked out of the window, as though

thinking, but not really thinking. He listened as though brooding. She stopped speaking as if waiting for him to speak.

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The use of the other conjunctions is infrequent.

e.g. Himself a man of little or no education, though possessing remarkable shrewdness, he placed little value on what he

called book knowledge. He always dropped in if passing by their house on a wet night.

I've got a comfortable home to take you to, and you'll be your own mistress, which is much better than being in service.

Mary brought in the coffee and when she had gone he inhaled the steam of it. It was as good as drinking it. Nothing is so dangerous as being too modern.

The use of the ing-form in this function is found mainly in literary style and even there it is not frequent.

Note. The ing-form may acquire adverbial meaning even when it is not preceded by a conjunction. But this use of the ing-form is still less frequent. For example, in the sentences below the ing-form has the following meanings:

cause — Seeing their uneasiness Mrs Norris softened and smiled. Knowing he could not go to Alice he tried to telephone her.

time — I know we shall break our necks one night walking across the field. manner — They walked by the lake holding hands.

concession — But why did he marry her, feeling as he did about everything? condition — Oh, do go upstairs, Lizzyl You'll only catch a cold, hanging

around the passage.

§ 225. The ing-form may be preceded by the prepositions after, before, besides, by, except for, for fear of, for the sake of, from, in, instead of, on, on the verge of, through, without and some others. The most frequently used of them is without showing that an action which may be logically expected to accompany the action of the predicate verb does not take place.

e.g. The bus passed us without stopping.

In a mutter he thanked her without raising his eyes. I watched her for a little while without being seen. Then he left us without saying good-bye.

As is seen from the above examples, the ing-form is placed after the predicate verb. Its position at the beginning of the sentence or between the subject and predicate, though possible, is unusual.

e.g. Slowly, without turning his head, he pulled himself to a halfsitting position.

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Roger, without turning to me, said in a curt, flat and even tone, "There may possibly be trouble."

A synonymous construction with not preceding an ing-form does not imply the idea that the action is logically expected. Like any other ing-form, it simply denotes a second action. Only in this case it is in the negative form (see "Verbs", § 213).

e.g. I returned to the drawing-room, and stood preoccupied, not noticing acquaintances about the room, with my back to the fire.

We had both sat for a long time, not speaking; in the quiet I knew she was not reading.

The ing-form preceded by not is typical of literary style, whereas the ing-form preceded by without is in common use in literary as well as in spoken English.

Another frequently occurring preposition which may precede the ing-form is by. In this case the action denoted by the ing-form expresses a means or a method of performing the action of the predicate verb. It may also indicate the manner in which the action of the predicate verb is carried out.

e.g. You begin learning a language by listening to the new sounds. He greeted me noisily, but I cut him short by giving him the

telegram.

I don't want to distress her by telling her that you have behaved like a cad.

"I have my dignity to think of." "One often preserves that best by putting it in one's pocket."

This ing-form is generally placed after the predicate verb, though its front position is occasionally possible.

e.g. By keeping quiet, she might save herself a lot of trouble.

The ing-form introduced by instead of is also in common use. It is characterized by a clear-cut meaning, owing to the preposition itself. Its position with regard to the predicate verb is not fixed.

e.g. Why do you tuck your umbrella under your left arm instead of carrying it in your hand like anything else? You

positively help them instead of hindering them.