§ 1. Pronouns include a miscellaneous group of words which function in the sentence as noun pronouns or as adjective pronouns.
It is difficult to define the meaning of pronouns. Unlike nouns and adjectives, they do not name objects or qualities, but only point to them. In other words, they are devoid of concrete lexical meaning. They have a generalized meaning instead, which becomes clear only in the context or situation.
Various individual pronouns may have different grammatical categories. Some of them have the category of number (e.g. this — these, that — those), others have the category of case (e.g. I — me, somebody — somebody's), still others are invariable (e.g. each, such, all, what and some others).
It should be pointed out that although pronouns function as nouns or adjectives in the sentence, they do not cover all the functions of the two parts of speech, but can only have some of them. Pronouns can be divided into the following classes:
I and we are said to be the pronouns of the 1st person, i.e. a person (or persons) who speaks (speak). You is said to be the pronoun of the 2nd person, i.e. a person (persons) spoken to. He, she, it and they are said to be the pronouns of the 3d person, i.e. a person (persons) or a thing (things) spoken about.
We distinguish singular and plural personal pronouns. Singular personal pronouns refer to one person or thing and plural personal pronouns refer to more than one person or thing. The pronouns I, we, you, he and she are mainly used for persons. /, we and you are indifferent to gender, while he is masculine and she is feminine. The pronoun It is used for animals, concrete things and abstract notions, i.e. it refers to neuter nouns. The pronoun they is used for persons, animals and things and is indifferent to gender.
§ 3. In addition to the above structural meanings of the personal pronouns, they have a few other special applications.
It is a tradition to use we instead of I in newspaper articles, scientific prose, etc. This so-called editorial we is believed to sound less assertive and, hence, more modest than /.
e.g. We are convinced that the Government has made a grave mistake in imposing this tax.
She is sometimes used for inanimate objects, especially ships, motor cars, aircraft, etc.
e.g. Come along and have a look at my new car. She is a beauty.
She is also used for countries, and even cities, especially in rather formal and rhetoric speech.
e.g. France has made it plain that she will regret the proposal.
You may be used with reference to nobody in particular, to any person who might find himself in a similar position.
e.g. You don't know him. He is dishonest. You feel that he is lying to you every moment of the day.
"Have you been aboard Mrs Wilcox's yacht? What do people do aboard yachts?" "I don't know. You drink, I suppose," Gregory said, shrugging his shoulders.
In my youth during Christmas holidays I loved to visit my classmates who all lived in small provincial towns. Once
you got into them, each anonymous house held a promise of fun. You didn't know who lived in them, but maybe in one of them, as you went from the station to the house of the people you were visiting, there would be a pretty girl getting ready for a dance.
They may be used to mean 'people in general', especially in the phrase they say.
e.g. They say he's going to resign.
No wonder they say the present generation hasn't got a scrap of enterprise.
The personal pronouns are used as nouns in the sentence.
§ 4. The personal pronouns change for case. There are two cases for personal pronouns — the nominative case and the objective case.
The forms of the nominative case function in the sentence as subjects.
e.g. I expect they will laugh at me.
Why, don't you know what he's up td?
The forms of the objective case function in the sentence as objects.
e.g. I met him in the street, (direct object) He gave me some advice, (indirect object) Please, don't tell anyone about us. (prepositional object)
When personal pronouns are used as predicatives or after than, as and but, the nominative case is considered to be very formal; the use of the objective case is preferred in spoken English.
"Do you need anything?" "A secretary that I'll dictate my piece to." "I'll be her." You're better off
than them (they). She is as tall as him (he). No one can do it but him (he).
But only a nominative case personal pronoun can be used in the following sentence pattern where the pronoun is followed by a clause.
e.g. It was I who did it.
The Use of it
§ 5. As has been said, the pronoun it is generally used for concrete things, abstract notions and animals.
e.g. I tried the door. It was locked.
He promised his help if ever I needed it.
He got down the horse and tied it to the rail.
Yet the pronoun it may be used to identify an unknown person. Then, once it has been done, he or she must be used.
e.g. There was a knock at the door. I thought it was the postman.
He usually came at that time.
When the waiter came up to his table he did not at once realize it was Paul. He was as handsome as ever.
It may also refer to an idea expressed in a preceding word-group (a), clause (b), sentence (c) or even context (d).
e.g. a) He tried to break the lock. It was not easy either.
There was some mutual hesitation about shaking hands, with both deciding against it.
b)He knew that his father was dying but he did not want to speak with anyone about it.
c)The music had stopped. He didn't notice it.
d)He studied her, then shook his head. He waited a moment
and then decided not to say what he might have been going to say. He swallowed half his whiskey before going on, and when he did, he returned to the conventional
questions. She had watched him do it all without any interest.
It is very often used as a formal subject in impersonal statements about weather conditions, time, distance and all kinds of measurements.
e.g. It is raining heavily.
It was very cold in the room. It is half past three now.
It is six miles to the nearest hospital from here. It is three feet deep here.
It as the formal subject is also found in sentences in which the predicate is modified by an infinitive phrase (a), or an ing-formphrase (b), or a clause (c). We usually find nominal predicates in this kind of sentences:
e.g. a) It is stupid to fall asleep like that. It is a pleasure to see you again.
b)It won't be easy finding our way home.
It's no use hoping he'll ever change his mind.
c)It was clear that he was going to give in.
It was a surprise that he had come back so soon.
The formal it may be used not only as the subject of the sentence but also as an object followed by an adjective or a noun which is modified by an infinitive phrase, an ing-form phrase or a clause.
e.g. I found it difficult to explain to him what had happened. He thought it no use going over the subject again. He thought it odd that they had left him no message.
The pronoun it is also used in the so-called emphatic construction, i.e. a special sentence pattern that serves to emphasize some word or phrase in the sentence.
e.g. It was my question that made him angry.
It was on the terrace that he wanted them to lay the table.
Finally, the pronoun it is rather often used in various idiomatic expressions where it seems to have very little lexical meaning of its own, if any at all. Most of these expressions are colloquial or even slangy.
e.g. Hang it all, we can't wait all day for him. Hop it, old thing, you are in the way here. When I see him, I'll have it out with him. If you are found out, you'll catch it.
Possessive Pronouns
§ 6. There are the following possessive pronouns in English:
Possessive pronouns serve to modify nouns in the sentence, i.e. they function as attributes.
e.g. The doctor usually came to his office at three o'clock. Do you think you are losing your popularity? From my place I could watch the people eating their lunch.
It should be noted that in English the possessive pronouns are often used instead of articles with nouns denoting relations, parts of the body, articles of clothing and various other personal belongings.
e.g. Bob nodded at his wife as if he wanted to say "You see?" He bit his lips, but said nothing. He took off his jacket and
loosened his tie. Amy put her cigarette back into her bag.
But there are certain idiomatic phrases where the definite article is used instead of a possessive pronoun.
§ 7. The possessive pronouns may also perform noun functions. Then they are used in their so-called absolute forms: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours and theirs.
e.g. She put her arm through mine.
They are not my gloves; I thought they were yours. Theirs is a very large family.
Incidentally, its is hardly ever used as an absolute form.
Note. The form yours is commonly used as a conventional ending to letters, e.g. Yours sincerely (truly, faithfully). J. Smith
Sometimes we find absolute forms of possessive pronouns preceded by the preposition of. This combination is called a double genitive.
e.g. He is a friend of mine.
It happened through no fault of his.
We had a slight accident and, luckily, that neighbour of yours came along or we would still be there.
Reflexive Pronouns
§ 8. The reflexive pronouns are formed by adding -self(in the plural -selves)to the possessive pronouns in the 1st and 2nd persons and to the objective case of the personal pronouns in the 3d person.
There is one more reflexive pronoun which is formed from the indefinite pronoun one — oneself.
These pronouns are used as noun pronouns in the sentence. They are called reflexive pronouns because they show that the action performed by the person which is indicated by the subject of the sentence passes back again to the same person. In other words, the subject of the sentence and its object indicate the same person. In this case the reflexive pronouns are weakly stressed.
e.g..He wrapped himself in his blanket and fell off to sleep. She cooked herself a big meal.
I'm sure you both remember the day when you talked about yourselves and the past.
As is seen from the above examples, the reflexive pronouns may serve in the sentence as different kinds of objects — direct, indirect and prepositional.
Note 1. Note the following sentences where personal pronouns are preferred to reflexive pronouns, e.g. He went in, closing the door behind him.
She put the thought from her.
He looked about him.
Note 2. Note that both personal and reflexive pronouns are found in sentences expressing comparison.
e.g. My brother is as tall as myself (me).
No one realizes it better than yourself (you).
§ 9. Reflexive pronouns may also be used in a different way: together with the verb they may form set phrases characterized by idiomatic meaning. The reflexive meaning of the self-pronoun is weakened in this case. The meaning of the verb differs from the meaning of the same verb when it is followed by an object expressed by a noun or an indefinite pronoun.
A few other verbs are always followed by reflexive pronouns with which they form a close sense-unit, e.g. to pride oneself on something, to avail oneself of something.
We also find idiomatic uses of reflexive pronouns in such set phrases as to be myself (himself, etc.) meaning 'to be or behave as before'.
e.g. I'm glad to see that he is himself again.
Besides, there are a few prepositional phrases with reflexive pronouns which are to be treated as set phrases because they have idiomatic meaning.
e.g. Are we actually by ourselves again? ('одни')
He was almost beside himself with excitement, ('вне себя') In spite of himself he was interested, ('наперекор себе', 'вопре-
ки своему желанию')
Go and find for yourself how it is done, ('сам') It is a word complete in itself, ('само по себе') As for myself, I have no complaint to make, ('что касается
меня')
I came away and left him to himself, ('оставил его одного') We can drive the car among ourselves, ('вдвоем по очереди')
Emphatic Pronouns
§ 10. Emphatic pronouns have the same forms as reflexive pronouns — they are homonyms. Emphatic pronouns are used for emphasis. They serve as noun pronouns and always perform the function of apposition in the sentence. They can be placed either immediately after their head-word or at the end of the sentence. They are rendered in Russian as сам, сама, само, сами.
e.g. You yourself told them the story. (Or: You told them the story yourself.)
My mother herself opened the door. (Or: My mother opened the door herself.)
We are all queer fish, queerer than we know ourselves. The parting itself was short but it made her ill with grief.
The emphatic pronouns are strongly stressed, but nevertheless they can be omitted without destroying the sense of the sentence.
§11. There are four demonstrative pronouns in English: this, that, such and same. They all may be used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns.
The pronouns this and that change for number. Their corresponding plural forms are: these and those.
§12. The pronoun this (these) refers to what is near in space, time or conception (a), that (those) to what is farther off (b).
e.g. a) Do you know these people? This is Harry Field, my coach, and this is Jake Spring, the producer.
Take this pear. It looks very ripe.
"Look at this," he said and showed me his tie.
When he stopped talking, she wondered, "Why is he telling me all this?"
"Maybe you don't want to go to this party," he asked hoping she would say "no".
b) Do you see those houses in the distance? That's where we are going.
Is that your son?
They ate the pie and drank the coffee in silence. When they had finished, Delany said, "Now I'll have that cigar you offered me."
He was deaf but she didn't think that many people noticed that.
The pronouns this (these) and that (those) may also have other applications.
1) In some cases this (these) may refer to what is to follow, that (those) to what precedes.
e.g. After I've listened to you very attentively I'll tell you this — I don't think you should trust the man.
But I'm glad to see you have an interest in sports. That means we have two things in common.
2) This (these) and that (those) are often used with nouns indi cating time. This (these) is used for time which is future or just past. That (those) is used for time which is clearly past.
e.g. "Why don't you come and see me some time?" "How about this Sunday, if it's convenient?" Father had to go to
Chicago this morning. I remember that he woke up early that morning. She looked flushed and well, although she had a heart attack
that summer.
3) Sometimes the use of this (these) and that (those) is emo tionally coloured. The kind of feeling implied (affection, vexation, disgust, contempt, etc.) depends on the situation.
e.g. Will this dog ever stop barking?
Do you really believe in those ideas? When will you stop trumping that piano? He is one of those so-called modern poets.
4) The pronoun that (those) may be used instead of a noun al ready mentioned. It is called a prop-word in this case.
e.g. He found it easier to believe that her actions were those of a spoilt girl.
He hung his daughter's portrait beside that of his wife's. These poems are not so good as those written by you last
year.
I entered by the door opposite to that opening into the garden.
She was a good teacher. She knew how to teach bright children and those who were slow.
I was interested to learn that the cafe was the same that we had visited five years before.
As is seen from the above examples, that (those) in this case is followed by a prepositional phrase, a participle, an ing-formor a clause.
5) That is often used instead of it. In this case that appears to be more emphatic than it.
e.g. I'm going to practise law. I have that all planned. "Let's send him a wire." "That's an excellent idea." "His gun went off and he nearly killed himself." "I didn't
know that."
"Tell her I'm sorry 1 missed her." "I'll do that." "I'm going to stay here a while." "That's fine."
6) Those followed by a who-clause,a participle or an ing-formrefers to persons.
e.g. Serious newspapers are read by those (=people) who want to know about important happenings everywhere.
Even those (=people) who do not like his pictures are not indifferent to him.
Those (=people) injured in the accident were taken to hospital.
Note. Those present 'присутствующие' and those concerned 'заинтересован-
ные лица' are set phrases.
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7) In spoken English that may be used as an adverbial modifi er of degree.
e.g. I did not think he was that stupid. I will go that far, but no further. He should know that much about his trade.
§ 13. That, this are often found as part of set phrases. Here are some of them:
e.g. "Mike will tell you that I seldom pass through this place without dropping in." "That's right." ('Это-верно.') "I
have a car outside. I'll give you a ride home." "Oh, that's all right. It isn't much of a walk." ('He надо'. 'Ничего'.)
My husband said you were properly brought up. He always notices things like that. (=such things) Would you like a
bag like this? (=such a bag) I hate it when they dance like this. (=in this way) I had never heard him speak like that before. (=in that way) It was May, but for all that the rain was falling as in the
heaviest autumn downpours, (=despite that) My mother intended to have a glorious supper — not that she could eat much nowadays, but for the sake of style and my sake, ('не то чтобы...') She was young and beautiful. More than that, she was happy.
('более того...')
You ought to know better than that, ('быть умнее') "Do you want to speak to me about your work?" "Oh, hardly
that." ('да нет, не совсем'; 'совсем не о том') Не talked about his responsibilities and all that, ('и тому подобное')
