Phonetics

Appendix B

Suggestions for Contributors to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association

There is no absolutely set form for contributions to the series “Illustrations of the IPA.” Every language has its own peculiarities, and it is impossible to do more than suggest guidelines so that as much uniformity as possible is maintained. In general, a submission to this section of the Journal of the International Phonetic Association (JIPA) should be relatively brief and not a full-fledged article on the phonetics of the language. There are usually five sections: (1) Introduction,

(2) Consonant chart and discussion, (3) Vowel chart and discussion, (4) Prosodic features, and (5) Illustrative passage in transcription. High-quality recordings of all the material (not just the final passage) should accompany the submission. They should be submitted, preferably, as WAV files with at least a 22-kHz sampling rate. Include all words and narrative text in the target language occurring anywhere in the Illustration.

(1)The oneor two-paragraph introduction should say where the language is spoken, what kind of language it is, and who the speaker on the recording was.

(2)The consonant chart should be at the head of this section and should give a set of IPA symbols for the consonantal phonological contrasts, arranged as on the official IPA chart but using only such columns and rows as are needed. The headings for columns should be chosen from the following in the order shown (and with this use of capitals). If secondary articulations are listed in the table, they should follow the column with no secondary articulation, as exemplified by (Labialized Velar) in this list.

Bilabial

Labiodental

Dental

Alveolar

Post-alveolar

Retroflex

Palatal

Velar

(Labialized Velar)

Uvular

Pharyngeal

Glottal

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296 APPENDIX B

The rows, in an order suggested by their order in the IPA chart, should be chosen from the following. Note that Stop, a generic term, is not used, and the row titles are given in the singular.

Plosive

Affricate

Ejective

Ejective affricate

Ejective lateral

Implosive

Click

Nasal

Trill

Tap or Flap

Fricative

Lateral fricative

Approximant

Lateral approximant

The consonant chart should be followed by a table of words illustrating the consonants. These words should form as minimal a set as possible; at the very least, each consonant should be followed by the same vowel, unless the phonology makes this impossible. Each word should be given in transcription and the local orthography (if any), and should be followed by an English gloss. Following the table, there should be a paragraph or two giving a more precise account of the consonants, using diacritics where necessary and noting significant allophones. Authors are welcome to follow a less traditional phonological format, but they should provide a traditional segmental description in addition to their own formal description.

(3)Vowel symbols should be placed on a conventional IPA vowel chart, four units across the top, three down the (right) side, and two across the bottom. Vowels should be illustrated by near-minimal sets of contrasts in the same way as consonants. The vowel chart should be followed by a discussion of the precise phonetic qualities of the vowels and their principal allophones. Authors are encouraged to include formant charts showing the mean values of the frequencies of the first and second formants of a number of speakers, but this is in no way required. If a formant chart is provided, it should, for preference, use a Bark scale and have the origin at the top right, and the F1 scale double the expansion of the F2 scale.

(4)Prosodic characteristics should be presented in whatever way is appropriate for the language. If there are lexical tones, they should be illustrated by minimal sets arranged in a table, in the same way as in the tables illustrating vowels and consonants. Contrasting stress or pitch accents should be similarly illustrated. Intonational contrasts such as those characterizing statements, questions, yes/no questions if different, echo questions, commands, and requests should be described briefly.

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APPENDIX B 297

(5) A transcription of a short text should be included, preferably a translation of the fable of the North Wind and the Sun as reproduced at the end of this section. This passage is clearly inappropriate for some cultures and may be replaced in whole or in part to make it more suitable for the particular language or dialect. There is, however, some value in having the same piece for as many languages as possible, and changes should not be made unnecessarily. The transcription should use only the symbols listed in the preceding sections. It should be preceded by any necessary interpretive comments accounting for notable allophones or assimilations and followed by an orthographic version. A literal, phrase-by-phrase translation may be included if appropriate. Authors, even if they are speakers of the language themselves, should bear in mind that it is usually advisable to make a recording of a representative speaker first and then transcribe that recording, rather than asking a speaker to read a passage that has already been transcribed.

A short list of references is often helpful.

These recordings and brief accounts of the phonetic structures of different languages are widely used by students wanting a first glimpse of their own or neighboring languages and by researchers seeking information on a wide range of languages. The IPA would like to make them as accurate and useful as possible within the constraints imposed by their being part of the

IPA Handbook.

As with all contributions to JIPA, manuscripts should be submitted to John Esling, Editor of JIPA ([e-mail]) at the address given in the journal. Initially, submissions should be in a form that can be conveniently read by editors and reviewers. Tables and figures may be included in the same document as the text. Electronically submitted files, e-mailed as identical AuthorName.doc and AuthorName.pdf attachments or sent on disc, are preferable, although papers may be submitted in hard copy in triplicate. Recordings of all word lists and continuous passages should be attached as WAV files.

After a paper has been accepted for publication, authors must be prepared to submit it in accordance with the Notes for Contributors in the journal. Most standard word-processing formats (for either PC or Macintosh) are supported, but please bear in mind that MS Word for PC is the most convenient once an article has been accepted for publication. Phonetic transcriptions should make use of the symbols and conventions of the Association’s alphabet in its latest revision. Text should use 12 pt. Times font and IPAKiel or IPAKielSeven for phonetic symbols if at all possible. SIL fonts or Unicode fonts, preferably those similar in style to IPAKiel, may also be used.

The final version of all material accepted for publication must be submitted in hard copy, preferably accompanied by an electronic copy. If an electronic version is included, it is essential that it match the hard copy exactly.

The English version of the usual passage for recording and transcription follows.

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298 APPENDIX B

The North Wind and the Sun

The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

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Notes

Much of the data on particular languages in this book is from Peter Ladefoged’s own fieldwork, usually conducted with the invaluable assistance of other linguists who were more familiar with the languages being investigated. Many of these data have been published, with appropriate acknowledgments to the linguists who were the original sources, in Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson, Sounds of the World’s Languages (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996). Also, unless noted otherwise, the sagittal sections of the vocal tract shown in this book are based on x-ray tracings of Peter Ladefoged.

Chapter 1

The x-ray movie. The high-speed x-ray movie of Kenneth N. Stevens is included in full on the CD. The original 35-mm cineradiography film was made by Sven Öhman and Kenneth Stevens at the Wenner-Gren Research Laboratory at Norrtull’s Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden, as described in an abstract of a paper by Sven E. G. Öhman and Kenneth N. Stevens, “Cineradiographic studies of speech: Procedures and objectives,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of Amererica

35, 1889 (1963), and in Kenneth N. Stevens and Sven E. G. Öhman, “Cineradiographic studies of speech,” Quarterly Progress and Status Report, Speech Transmission Laboratory, KTH, Stockholm, 2/63, 9–11 (1963). The original film was described and analyzed in detail by Joseph S. Perkell in Physiology of Speech Production: Results and Implications of a Quantitative Cineradiographic Study

(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969).

The film was converted to DVD format and distributed at a conference at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in June 2004, honoring Professor Stevens, From Sound to Sense: 50+ Years of Discoveries in Speech Communication. The film was part of the poster Articulatory KENematics: Revisiting the Stevens Cineradiography, K. G. Munhall (Queen’s University), M. Tiede (Haskins Laboratories), J. Perkell (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), A. Doucette (Industrial Light & Magic), and E. Vatikiotis-Bateson (University of British Columbia).

WaveSurfer. The acoustic analysis package WaveSurfer, mentioned in the exercises at the end of Chapter 1, is available for free download and is also provided in the “Additional Resources” folder on the CD. WaveSurfer is a free, opensource, acoustic analysis program made available by KTH, Centre for Speech Technology. Updates and further information on this program are at http://www. speech.kth.se/wavesurfer/. WaveSurfer is easy to use, although it has only a

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300 NOTES

rudimentary guide. Analyses can be made by right-clicking (control + click on a Macintosh) whatever has been recorded and selecting “Create Pane.” This will bring up a list of the possible analyses.

Chapter 2

The IPA. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association is the definitive, authoritative source on the International Phonetic Alphabet. Every serious student of phonetics should own a copy of the handbook. Here is a link to the handbook publisher’s web site: http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/handbook. html.

Chapter 3

Consonants influenced by vowels. The data for Figure 3.6 were kindly provided by Anne Vilain, Pierre Badin, and Christian Abry based on MRI data that they published in their 1998 paper “Coarticulation and degrees of freedom in the elaboration of a new articulatory plant: Gentiane,” in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (R. H. Mannell & J. Robert-Ribes, Eds.), vol. 7, pp. 3147–3150. Sydney, Australia, December 1998, http://www.icp.inpg.fr/%7Ebadin/Vilain_Abry_Badin_ICSLP_1998.

Chapter 4

Bunched vs. retroflex / r /. Originals of the MRI images of bunched versus retroflex / r / in English were kindly provided by Mark Tiede. These data were discussed in Xinhui Zhou, Carol Y. Espy-Wilson, Mark Tiede, and Suzanne Boyce (2007), “An Articulatory and Acoustic Study of ‘Retroflex’ and ‘Bunched’ American English Rhotic Sound Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” in Proceedings of Interspeech 2007, Antwerp, Belgium, pp. 54–57. Suzanne Boyce added the following information. “The images come from two different subjects sustaining /r/ for 13 to 20 seconds. The instructions were to sustain the /r/ as in ‘pour’. We also have ultrasound data from running speech from these subjects, and the ultrasound data tell us that these subjects use similar tongue shapes during real and nonsense words—although we have some ultrasound and tagged MRI from subject 22 indicating he shows a more bunched tongue position in intervocalic /gr/ context.”

English allophones. Many of the statements on English allophones in Chapter 4 are based on observations by Professor Patricia Keating (UCLA) and her students Dani Byrd, John Choi, and Edward Flemming of the TIMIT database, as well as other databases that reflect the pronunciation of a large number of American speakers of various dialects.

Voice talent. Professor Bruce Hayes (UCLA) spent many hours being the “General American” speaker.

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NOTES 301

Chapter 5

Two opposites. The illustration of vowel deletion in conversational speech was drawn from the Buckeye Corpus (http://buckeyecorpus.osu.edu/) of phonetically transcribed conversations, which is described in Mark A. Pitt, Keith Johnson, Elizabeth Hume, Scott Kiesling, and William Raymond, “The Buckeye corpus of conversational speech: Labeling conventions and a test of transcriber reliability,” Speech Communication 45(1), 89–95 (2005).

Musical Obama. The rhythmic transcription of the first 47 seconds of Barack Obama’s Iowa acceptance speech was produced by Keith Johnson’s UC Berkeley colleague Richard Rhodes using the Macintosh application Garage Band.

Chapter 6

How to make a click. The sequence of articulatory events in a click noise illustrated in Figure 6.5 is based on an x-ray study reported by Anthony Traill in his 1985 book Phonetic and Phonological Studies of !Xoo Bushman (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 5: Helmut Buske, Hamburg).

The glottis. The photographs of the glottis in Figure 6.6 were taken by John Ohala and Ralph Vanderslice. Ohala says regarding these photos, “Those were the vocal cords of the (recently) late Ralph Vanderslice. My job was the sort of ‘macrophotography’ (with my then trusty Nikon), using a telephoto lens plus an extension tube and a ring strobe (one that fits around the lens—to give even lighting). But the real technical credit is Ralph’s who could tolerate an oversize mirror (about 3 cm diameter, if I recall correctly)—and he literally had to ‘mount’ this mirror since it was affixed to a stationary device—there was no other way for me to get good focus on each pic.”

Chapter 7

Dental stops in California. The “careful palatographic study” mentioned in the discussion of dental sounds in English was done by Peter Ladefoged’s student Sarah Dart in her 1991 Ph.D. dissertation “Articulatory and Acoustic Properties of Apical and Laminal Articulations,” which was published as UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics number 79.

Chapter 8

First campaign. The illustration of lowand high-frequency components in Figure 8.1 was drawn from the Buckeye Corpus of phonetically transcribed conversations, which is described in Mark A. Pitt, Keith Johnson, Elizabeth Hume, Scott Kiesling, and William Raymond, “The Buckeye corpus of conversational speech: Labeling conventions and a test of transcriber reliability,” Speech Communication 45(1), 89–95 (2005).

Vowel formants. The acoustic data on the formant frequencies of vowels (Figure 8.5) are from G. E. Petersen and H. L. Barney, “Control methods used in

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302 NOTES

a study of the vowels,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 24, 175–84 (1956); and A. Holbrook and G. Fairbanks, “Diphthong formants and their movements,” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 5, 38–58 (March 1962).

Bark frequency. The relation between frequency in Hz and pitch in Bark scale is given in M. R. Schroeder, B. S. Atal, and J. L. Hall, “Objective measure of certain speech signal degradations based on masking properties of human auditory perception,” in B. Lindblom and S. Öhman (Eds.), Frontiers of Speech Communication Research (pp. 217–229) (New York: Academic Press, 1979).

Chapter 9

Vowels of English. The acoustic data on the formant frequencies of vowels (Figure 9.1) are from G. E. Petersen and H. L. Barney, “Control methods used in a study of the vowels,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 24, 175–84 (1956); and A. Holbrook and G. Fairbanks, “Diphthong formants and their movements,” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 5, 38–58 (March 1962).

Tongue position in cardinal vowels. The x-rays of cardinal vowels used in Figure 9.3 were published in S. Jones, “Radiography and pronunciation,” British Journal of Radiology, New Series, 3, 149–50 (1929).

Vowels of English dialects. The data for the plots of different accents of English are from R. Hagiwara (1995), “Acoustic Realizations of American / r / as Produced by Women and Men,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles (Californian English); J. Hillenbrand, L. A. Getty, M. J. Clark, and K. Wheeler, “Acoustic characteristics of American English vowels,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97(5), 3099–3111 (1995) (northern cities); and D. Deterding (1990), “Speaker Normalisation for Automatic Speech Recognition,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge (BBC English).

Vowels in other languages. The data on Spanish vowels are from Pierre Delattre, “Comparing the vocalic features of English, German, Spanish and French,”

International Review of Applied Linguistics 2, 71–97 (1964). The data on Japanese vowels are from Han Mieko, Japanese Phonology (Tokyo: Kenkyuusha, 1962). The data on Danish vowels are from Eli Fischer-Jørgensen, “Formant frequencies of long and short Danish vowels,” in E. S. Firchow et al. (Eds.), Studies for Einar Haugen (The Hague: Mouton, 1972).

The tongue shape of ATR. Figure 9.10 is based on Mona Lindau’s x-rays of the Akan vowels (see Mona Lindau Webb (1987) Tongue mechanisms in Akan and Luo. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics, v. 68, p. 46–57).

Bunched vs. retroflex / r /. The data on American English / r / are also from Robert Hagiwara’s 1995 UCLA Ph.D. dissertation.

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NOTES 303

Exercise A. The description of vowels mentioned in Exercise A is published in Kenneth N. Stevens and Arthur House, “Development of a quantitative description of vowel articulation,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 27, 484–493 (1955).

Exercise B. The description mentioned in Exercise B was suggested by Morris Halle and Kenneth N. Stevens (1969) in their article “On the feature ‘advanced tongue root’” (Quartely Progress Report. 94, pp. 209–215. Cambridge MA: MIT, Research Laboratory of Electronics). Historical descriptions of vowels mentioned in the third exercise may be found in Hermann Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1954). First published in German in 1863, the fourth edition was translated by A. J. Ellis and published in English in 1885. Reprinted by New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1954.

Chapter 10

Measuring speech timing. The account of the PVI (pairwise variability index) is based on discussions with Esther Grabe, who also developed the Excel spreadsheet on the CD for calculating this index. See E. Grabe and E. L. Low, “Durational variability in speech and the rhythm class hypothesis,” Papers in Laboratory Phonology, 7 (The Hague: Mouton, 2000).

Chapter 11

Coordination for [p]. Figure 11.9 is based on one from Mary Beckman’s great course handout, titled “Notes on Speech Production.” Dr. Beckman’s influence on this edition of the Course is also evident in Chapter 5.

Neogrammarian exemplars. Many thanks to Professor Andrew Garrett for pointing out the following quotation from Hermann Paul’s (1920) Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (5th ed. Halle: Niemeyer. First edition 1880, 2nd ed. 1886), in which Paul clearly outlines the connection between exemplar memory (“earlier and later production of the same utterance”) and sound change:

To understand the phenomenon we call sound change (Lautwandel), we must clarify the physical and psychological processes that take place in the production of an utterance: first, the motions of the speech organs

. . . second, the series of sensations by which these motions are necessarily accompanied, the articulatory sensations (Bewegungsgefühl) . . . third, the acoustic sensations (Tonempfindungen) produced in listeners, among whom speakers themselves belong under normal circumstances. Even after the physical excitement has disappeared, an enduring psychological effect remains, representations in memory (Erinnerungsbilder), which are of the greatest importance for sound change. For it is these alone that connect the intrinsically separate physiological processes and bring about a causal relation between earlier and later production of the same utterance.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.