Phonetics

FURTHER READING 315

Roach, Peter. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000. A good book for those especially interested in English.

Stevens, Kenneth. Acoustic Phonetics. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Clearly the leading technical book, describing everything that is known about the acoustics of speech.

Zemlin, Willard. Speech and Hearing Science, Anatomy and Physiology. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1998. A good account of the anatomy and physiology of the vocal organs.

Useful Web Sites

The IPA. The home page of the International Phonetics Association http://www. langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ has many very helpful links, including links to sound files illustrating the IPA and links to free and professional IPA fonts, as well as information about how to join the IPA and get the IPA journal.

Speech analysis software. We can recommend two free acoustic analysis software tools for waveform editing, spectral analysis, and more. Wavesurfer is a useful and very flexible program: http://www.speech.kth.se/wavesurfer/. Praat is also a very popular speech-analysis program: http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/ praat/.

Phonetics on YouTube. Keith Johnson maintains (and would welcome suggested additions to) a YouTube channel with links to phonetics-related movies, ranging from physics lectures to drunken amateur laryngoscopy: http://www. youtube.com/user/keithjohnsonberkeley.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Index

Note: Terms in bold also appear in the Glossary.

Acoustic phonetics

acoustic analysis, 193–198 consonants, 198–204 individual differences, 212–215 overview, 6

perturbation theory, 192–193 source/filter theory, 187–190 spectrogram interpretation, 204–212 tube models, 190–191

Advanced tongue root (ATR), 228–229

Affricates, 15–16, 67, 174 Airstream process

features, 272–277

glottis actions, 148–150, 156–157 mechanisms, 136–148

overview, 5, 6

voice onset time, 151–156 Akan language, 228

Aleut language, 170

Allophones, 46–48, 65–66, 72–77, 100–102

Allophonic transcriptions, 271–272

Alternations, 110, 113,

Alveolar lateral approximants, 179

Alveolar ridge, 8, 9, 12 Alveolar stops, 74–75, 165, 204

Alveolo-palatals, 169, 273 Ambisyllabic, 248–249 American English

consonant sounds, 38, 74 dental fricatives, 165 diphthongs, 92–93 intonational phrases, 119–127

regional differences, 40, 41, 64–65, 224 rhotacization, 94–96, 229–230

stress in, 249–250 timing, 252–253 tones, 260

velarization, 68–69

vowel sounds, 39, 41, 42, 87–92, 219, 224

Amplitude, 7

Anticipatory coarticulation, 70 Aperture, 274–275, 278

Apical sounds, 168–169, 274 Approximants, 15, 68–69, 108, 179, 204,

274–276

Arabic language, 171, 270

Articulations central, 179–180

controlling, 278–281 defined, 4

ease of, 284

formant frequencies and, 197–198 manners of, 14–17

secondary, 234–237 structures of, 8–13 Articulatory process, 5, 6

Arytenoid cartilages, 148–150

Aspiration, 57, 151, 157

Assimilation, 111, 277

ATR (advanced tongue root), 228–229 Auditory vowel space, 88–89

Australian aboriginal languages, 168–169

Backness, 21, 217, 220, 223, 228, 230–232, 275–276

Back vowels, 20, 88–89, 102

Bilabial gestures, 11, 164–166, 172, 174, 177–178, 204, 273

Break index, 128, 130

Breathy voice, 148–149, 157

British English. See also Cockney English approximants, 68–69

consonant sounds, 35, 38 dental fricatives, 165 dipthongs, 92–93, 94–95

317

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

318INDEX

British English (Continued) intonational phrases, 119–127 rhotacization, 94–96

vowel sounds, 39, 41, 42, 89–92, 219, 224–226

Broad transcription, 47 Burmese language, 174

Canadian English, 64–65, 92

Cardinal vowels, 217–223 Central articulation, 179–180 Chadic languages, 150 Chaga language, 179

Chinese language, 169, 249, 253, 255, 257–260, 282

Citation form, 33, 107–109

Clicks, 143–147

Closed syllables, 98–99 Coarticulation, 70–71, 284

Cockney English, 38, 92, 174. See also British English

Coda, 248–249 Connected speech

vs. citation speech, 33, 107–109 intonation, 118–127

sentence rhythm, 116–118 stress in, 111–116

Consonants

acoustics of, 198–204 affricates, 67 allophonic rules, 72–77 approximates, 68–69

articulation of, 14–17, 163–172, 180–181 charts of, 42–43

coda, 248–249 diacritics, 77 flaps, 175–178

fricatives, 65–66, 174–175 homorganic, 63

laterals, 178–180

nasals, 67–68, 174, 200–201 overlapping gestures, 69–72 places of obstruction, 10–13 stops, 57–65, 172–174, 200 taps, 175–178

transcription of, 35–38 trills, 175–178 waveforms of, 17–19

Continuation rise, 120–121, 123–124, 126–127

Contour tone, 257, 260 Coordinative structures, 279–280

Coronal articulations, 10, 64, 273–274 Creaky voice, 148–150, 157

Czech language, 177, 249, 250

Danish language, 227

Declination, 259

Degrees of freedom problems, 279

Dentals, 12, 75, 144–146, 165, 273 Devoicing, 282

Diacritics, 46, 77

Dictionaries, 85–86 Diphthongs, 39, 92–93, 101–102 Dorsal articulations, 10, 273

Downdrift, 130 Downstep, 127, 130 Dutch language, 228, 253

Ease of articulation, 284 Edo language, 256 Egede language, 257

Ejectives, 137–140, 147, 156–157

English Pronouncing Dictionary, 85

Epenthesis, 76

Epiglottal sounds, 171–172, 273 Epiglottis, 9

Eskimo language, 170

Ewe language, 164, 165, 172

Exemplar theory, 283–284

Falling contour, 121–122, 125, 127

Features, 272–277

Filter, 187–190, 194 Fixed phrase stress, 250 Fixed word stress, 249–250 Flaps, 15, 175–178

Formants

acoustic analysis, 193–198 consonants and, 198–203 individual differences, 212–215 overview, 23

perturbation theory, 192–193 source/filter theory, 187–189 spectrogram analysis, 204–212 tube models, 190–191

vowel chart, 218 French language

overlapping gestures, 70 perceptual separation, 285–286 places of articulation, 165, 168–170 stress, 249, 250

timing, 252, 253 trills, 178

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

	INDEX 319
voice onset time, 153, 154	Homorganic consonants, 63, 76
vowels, 228, 233, 234	Hungarian language, 169
Frequency, 24. See also Acoustic
phonetics	Ibibio language, 255
Fricatives	Icelandic language, 175
acoustic correlates, 204	Igbo language, 147, 255–256
allophonic variations, 65–66	Implosives, 140–143, 147, 150, 156–157
aperture and, 274–275	Impressionistic transcription, 48
bilabial, 164, 165	Indian English, 165
dental, 165	Individual differences, 212–215
labiodental, 164–165, 172	Intensity, 194–195
mechanism of, 14–15	Interdental, 12
palatal-alvelar, 167–172	International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 255,
retroflex, 167–168	268–272
sibilant, 174–175	International Phonetic Association, 36,
in spectrograms, 108	267–268
symbols for, 172	Intonation
Front vowels, 20, 88–89	defined, 24
Full vowels, 97, 108	rising and falling contour, 121–122,
	124–125, 127
Gaelic languages, 154, 260	ToBI system, 127–130
Geminates, 251	tone and, 254–260
German language, 165, 169, 170, 174, 228,	tonic accents, 114–115, 119–127, 125
249, 252, 253	Intonational phrase, 118–123, 125,
Gestural targets, 69–72	127–128, 130
Gestures	IPA. See International Phonetic
bilabial, 11, 164–166, 172, 174,	Alphabet
177–178, 204, 273, 279	Italian language, 165, 169, 180, 251
overlapping, 69–72, 102, 284
palato-alveolar, 12, 167–172, 273	Japanese language, 179, 226–227, 233, 243,
retroflex, 12, 94, 165–169, 172,	251, 253, 261, 282
175–177, 179–180, 204, 273	Jones, Daniel, 85, 218, 220
secondary articulatory, 234–237
Glottal articulations, 273, 275–276	Kele language, 178
Glottalic airstream mechanism, 137	Khosian language, 147
Glottal stops, 16, 61–63, 73–74, 137–140,	Konopka, Rafal, 86
156–157	Kretzschmar, William, 86
Glottis, 137, 148–150, 156–157	Kutep language, 257
Greek language, 243
Gujarati language, 149–150	Labial articulations, 10, 273
	Labialization, 236
Hard palate, 9	Labial velars, 171–172
Hartman, James, 85	Labiodental, 11, 164–165, 172, 177,
Hausa language, 137–138, 150, 156, 177,	178, 273
257, 259	Lakhota language, 138–140, 142
Hawaiian language, 249, 252	Laminal sounds, 168–169, 274
Hebrew language, 171, 270	Laryngeal characteristics, 272–278
Height, 20–23, 70, 94, 217, 220–221, 223,	Laryngealized sounds, 150
228–232, 275–276	Larynx, 9
Helmholtz, Hermann, 191	Laterals, 15, 178–180, 204, 273, 278
High plus downstepped high, 127	Lax vowels, 98–100
Hindi language, 149, 154–156, 166–168	Length, 251

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

320INDEX

Linguistic phonetics, 268–277

Linguo-labials, 164

Lip movements, 279–280

Lip rounding, 20, 66, 70–71, 217, 219–222, 226–228, 232, 236

Liquid, 74 Locus, 199

Longman Pronunciation Dictionary

(Wells), 85

Loudness, 7

Luganda language, 251, 255, 256, 257

Malayalam language, 165–168, 172, 178, 180

Manner, 273–275 Margi language, 178

Mid-Waghi language, 180

Midwestern English. See American English Modal voice, 150, 157

Monophthongs, 90, 92–93, 96 Mora, 251

Motor control, 278–281

Motor equivalences, 280 Murmur, 148–149, 157

Nama language, 145, 147

Narrow transcription, 47

Nasals

acoustic correlates, 204 clicks, 146

consonants, 67–68, 174, 200–201 features, 274–278

palatal, 169–170

in spectrograms, 108 stops, 14

syllabic, 74 symbols for, 172 variations, 67–68 velar, 145–147, 170 voiceless, 174

vowels, 101, 231–232 Nasal tract, 4

Navajo language, 151–154, 174, 180, 282 Neogrammarians, 284

Newton, Isaac, 23

New Zealand English, 224 Nuclear pitch accent, 127–128

Nucleus, 248

Obama, Barack, 117 Obstruents, 73, 136–137 Old English, 235

Onset, 248

Open syllables, 99–100 Oral stop, 14

Oral tract, 4

Oro-nasal process, 5, 6, 13

An Outline of English Phonetics

(Jones), 220

Overlapping gestures, 69–72, 102, 284 Overtone pitches, 21

Owerri dialect, 147

Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, 86

Pairwise variability index (PVI), 252 Palatal, 13, 169–170

Palatalization, 234–235

Palato-alveolar gestures, 12, 167–172, 273 Perceptual separation, 285

Perturbation theory, 192–193 Pharyngealization, 235–236 Pharyngeal sounds, 171–172, 273 Pharynx, 9

Phonation process, 5, 6 Phonemes, 34–38, 69–72

Phonemic transcriptions, 35, 271–272

Phonetic implementation rules, 282 Phonetic transcription, 33

Phonetic variability, 281–283 Phonology, 33, 45–48, 271–272 Phrase accent, 127–128, 130 Pitch, 7, 21–24, 118, 250, 254–261

Places of articulation, 8–13, 163–172, 180–181, 272–278

Plosives, 14, 64, 137

Polish language, 169, 249, 250, 253

Post-alveolar, 12 Prominence, 247–248

Pulmonic airstream mechanism, 136–138 PVI (pairwise variability index), 252

Quality of sound, 7

Quechua language, 170–171

Radical articulations, 273 r-colored vowels, 94

Reduced vowels, 97–98, 101, 107, 114

Reification, 277 Release burst, 138

Retroflex gestures, 12, 94, 165–169, 172, 175–177, 179–180, 204, 273

Rhotacization, 94–96, 229–231, 275–276

Rhyme, 248

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Rhythm, 116–118

Rising contour, 121–122, 124–125 Roach, Peter, 85

Roll, 15

Rounded vowels, 20, 228, 275–276 Russell, G. Oscar, 198

Russian language, 234–235

Scottish English, 176

Secondary cardinal vowels, 222–223

Segments, 243 Semivowels, 232–234 Sentence rhythm, 116–118 Setter, Jane, 85

Shona language, 255 Sibilants, 15, 175, 274–275

Sindhi language, 140, 142–143, 151–152, 154, 166, 169–170, 173

Slips of the tongue, 247–248

Soft palate, 9 Sonority, 245–247 Sound waves, 6–8

Source/filter theory, 187–190 South African languages, 145

Spanish language, 169–170, 177, 180, 226–227, 252, 253

Speaker identification, 214–215

Spectrograms

individual differences, 212–215 interpretation, 204–212 overview, 194–198

types of sounds in, 108 Speech motor control, 278–281 Speech planning, 247–248 Speech synthesis, 213–214 Stetson, R. H., 247

Stops. See also Ejectives; Plosives; Retroflex gestures

acoustic correlates, 204 alveolar, 74–75, 165 aperature and, 274–275 consonants, 57–65, 200 dental, 165

fricatives and, 65–66

glottal, 16, 61–63, 73–74, 137–140, 156–157

release burst, 138

in spectrograms, 108 symbols for, 172 types of, 14, 172–174

velar, 77, 137–140, 155, 170 Stress, 23, 111–118

INDEX 321

Stressed syllables, 97–98, 101, 249–250 Strong form of words, 109

Sub-Apical sounds, 274 Supra-Laryngeal characteristics,

272–277

Suprasegmentals, 23–24, 249 Swahili, 35, 173, 249, 250 Swedish language, 228, 260

Syllables

definition of, 243–245 intonation and tone, 254–260 length, 251

onset and rhyme, 248–249 prominence, 247–248 sonority, 245–247

stress, 97–98, 101, 249–250 timing, 252–253

Symbols, 36f, 39, 45–48 Synthetic speech, 213–214

Systematic phonetic transcription, 48

Tamil language, 177

Taps, 15, 74–75, 175–178, 274–275 Tense vowels, 98–100

Thai language, 154–156, 253, 257 Tier, 127–130

Timing, 252–253 Titan language, 178 Tiv language, 172 ToBI system, 127–130

Toda language, 178, 180, 269, 270 Tone and break indices, 127–130 Tone languages. See Tones Tones, 254–260

Tone sandhi, 257 Tongue, 9, 275–276

Tonic accents, 114–115, 119–122, 125 Transcription

allophonic, 271–272 broard vs. narrow, 47 of consonants, 35–38 dictionaries, 85–86 impressionistic, 48, 271 limitations of, 110–111 phonemic, 35, 271–272 phonetic, 33 phonology, 45–48 symbols for, 36, 39

systematic phonetic, 48, 271 of vowels, 38–42

Trills, 15, 175–178, 274–275 Tube models, 190–191

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

322 INDEX
Unrounded vowels, 20	American and British, 89–92
Unstressed syllables, 96–98, 101	aperture and, 274–275
Upton, Clive, 86	approximants and, 275–276
Uvula, 9, 170–171	articulation of, 19–21
	auditory space, 88–89
Vanuatu language, 164	backness, 21, 217, 220, 223, 228,
Variable work stress, 249	230–232
Velar	cardinal, 217–222
acoustic correlates, 204	charts, 44–45, 218, 222–223, 226–227
defined, 13	coordinative structures and, 280
features, 273	diphthongs, 92–93
labial, 171–172	height, 20–23, 70, 94, 217, 220–221,
pinch, 199	223, 228–232, 275–276
stops, 77, 137–140, 155, 170	individual differences, 212–215
Velaric airstream mechanism, 145	lip rounding, 20, 66, 70–71, 217,
Velarization, 68–69, 235	219–222, 226–228, 232, 236
Velar nasals, 145–147, 170	nasals, 231–232
Velic closure, 9	in other English accents, 224–226
Velum, 9	in other languages, 226–228
V’enen Taut language, 164	perturbation theory, 192–193
Vietnamese language, 141, 143, 257	quality, 87–88, 188, 232
Vocal folds, 4, 188–191, 195, 204,	reduced, 97–98, 101, 107, 114
208–211	rhotacization, 94–96, 229–231
Vocal tract, 4, 188–189, 188–190, 192,	secondary articulatory gestures, 234–237
198–199, 209	secondary cardinal, 222–223
Vocoids, 232	semivowels, 232–234
Voice bar, 199	sounds of, 21–23
Voiced sounds	source/filter theory, 187–190
approximants, 68	in spectrograms, 108, 204–212
defined, 4	tense and lax sets, 98–100
fricatives, 65–66	transcription and phonetic dictionaries,
glottis state in, 148–149, 157	85–86
laterals, 178–180	transcription of, 38–42
rules for, 73–75	tube models, 190–191
stop consonants, 57–62, 64, 204	unstressed syllables, 96–98, 101
vowel allophones and, 100
Voiceless sounds.	Waveforms, 7, 17–19
approximates, 68–69	WaveSurfer, 194
fricatives, 65–66	Weak form of words, 109
glottis state in, 148–149, 157	Wells, John, 85
laterals, 178–180	Willis, Robert, 191
rules for, 73–76
stop consonants, 57–58, 60–62, 64, 200	Xhosa language, 145–147, 255
vs. voiced sounds, 4	!Xóõ language, 145, 147
vowel allophones and, 100–101
Voice onset time (VOT), 151–156	Yoruba language, 172, 255, 257
Vowels
acoustic analysis, 193–198	Zulu language, 144–147, 156, 179,
advanced tongue root, 228–229	255, 257
allophonic rules, 100–102

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005)

(continued from inside front cover)

DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g., N(

9

Voiceless

n9

d9

ª Breathy voiced

bª

aª

1

Dental

t1

d1

3

Voiced

s3

3t

0 Creaky voiced

b0

a0

¡

Apical

t¡

d¡

Ó

Aspirated

tÓ

dÓ

£ Linguolabial

t£

d£

4

Laminal

t4

d4

7

More rounded

O7

W

Labialized

tW

dW

) Nasalized

e)

¶

Less rounded

O¶

Palatalized

tΔ

dΔ

˜

Nasal release

d˜

™

Advanced

u™

◊

Velarized

t◊

d◊

¬

Lateral release

d¬

2

Retracted

e2

≥

Pharyngealized

t≥

d≥

}

No audible release

d}

·

Centralized

e·

º Velarized or pharyngealized

:

+

Mid-centralized

e+

6 Raised

e6 (®6= voiced alveolar fricative)

`

Syllabic

n`

§ Lowered

e§

§

(B = voiced bilabial approximant)

8

Non-syllabic

e8

5 Advanced Tongue Root

e5

±

Rhoticity

E±

a±

∞ Retracted Tongue Root

e∞

OTHER SYMBOLS

∑

Voiceless labial-velar fricative

Ç ¸

Alveolo-palatal fricatives

w

Voiced labial-velar approximant

»

Alveolar lateral flap

μ

Voiced labial-palatal approximant

Í

Simultaneous

S and x

˝

Voiceless epiglottal fricative

¿

Voiced epiglottal fricative

Affricates and double articulations

kp° ts•

÷

can be represented by two symbols

Epiglottal plosive

joined by a tie bar if necessary.

SUPRASEGMENTALS

"Primary stress

`Secondary stress

		foÁnE"tISEn`
…	Long	e…
Ú	Half-long	eÚ
	*Extra-short	e*

˘Minor (foot) group

≤Major (intonation) group

. Syllable break ®i.œkt

• Linking (absence of a break)

TONES AND WORD ACCENTS

LEVEL			CONTOUR
e_or	â	Extra	eˇ or	ä	Rising
		high
e!	ê	High	e$	ë	Falling
e@	î	Mid	e%	ü	High
					rising
e~	ô	Low	efi	ï	Low
					rising
e—	û	Extra	e&	Ë	Rising-
		low			falling
Õ	Downstep		ã	Global rise
õ	Upstep		Ã	Global fall

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.