The article

The article is a structural word specifying the noun. There are two articles in English — the definite article the and the indefinite article a.

The indefinite article conveys the idea of indefiniteness. The definite article conveys the idea of definiteness. Definiteness suggests that the object presented by the noun is individualized and singled out from all the other objects of the same kind, while indefiniteness means a more general reference to an object.

Both the definite and the indefinite articles have developed from notional parts of speech, whose influence is traced in their meaning and use.

The definite article developed from demonstrative pronouns this, that, which account for its meaning of definiteness. The demonstrative force remains in many phrases, such as at the time, of the kind.

The indefinite article developed from the cardinal numeral one. The numerical meaning is evident in such phrases as at a time, in a moment, not a sound.

Since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general situation we should pay attention to different attributes modifying nouns. All attributes are generally divided into restrictive (or limiting) and descriptive.

A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects) or give additional information about it:

He wore a large straw hat.

A restrictive attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an object which makes it distinct from other objects of the class:

She accepted the coffee he offered her.

Both descritive and restrictive attributes can be premodifying (occupying the position before the noun), and postmodifying (used after the noun).

Nouns modified by restrictive attributes are used with the definite article, nouns modified by descriptive attributes are mainly used with the indefinite article.

Functions of the Article

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article is used in the following functions: classifying, generic and numerical.

1) Classifying .

In this function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind. The article has the meaning of the indefinite pronoun some:

Somewhere a telephone began to ring.

I saw a speck in the distance. It was a boat.

The door opened and a girl entered.

The noun preceded by the indefinite article in its classifying function may be accompanied by premodifying and postmodifying descriptive attributes:

I’ve read a very interesting novel.

This is a novel which is very suitable for staging.

He was a man who travelled a lot.

Marion came out of the garden, wearing a very old garden shirt.

2) Generic (any, every).

In this function the indefinite article implies that what is said about one representative of the class (a thing, animal or a person) can also be said about other representatives of this class. The indefinite article in its generic function has the meaning of any, every:

A crane is a tall bird with a very long neck and beak.

A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines.

A library is a collection of books.

A complex sentence has two or more clauses.

In this function the indefinite article is used in proverbs and sentences expressing some general truth:

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

A hungry man is an angry man.

3) Numeric(al)

In this function the indefinite article preserves its original meaning of the cardinal numeral one:

I won’t say a word.

An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

The idea of oneness is evident with nouns denoting time, distance, measure: a hundred, a thousand, a minute, a day, an hour, a year; after the negative not — not a word, not a thought.

The Definite Article

The main functions of the definite article are: specifying and generic.

1) Generic

In its generic function the definite article refers to the whole class of objects of the same kind. It is used to indicate that the noun becomes a composite image of the class:

The lion is the king of animals.

The tiger has always had the reputation of being a man-eater.

The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.

The rose is my favourite flour.

The generic reference suggests the highest degree of abstraction in a countable noun, so with the words man and woman in their generic meaning no article is used. As for the noun man, it can also have the idea of “mankind”:

Man is not made to defeat.

Woman is physically weaker than man.

Note 1. The generic use of the definite article occurs with nouns denoting social classes: the proletariat, the bourgeoisie, the gentry, the intelligentsia.

Note 2. The use of the definite article before substantivized adjectives in their collective or abstract meaning is also generic: the poor, the strong, the obvious, the beautiful.

Note 3. The definite article is used in its generic function with nouns denoting different inventions and discoveries:

Popov invented the radio.

2) Specifying

In this function the definite article serves to single out an object or a group of objects from all the other objects of the same kind.

The specification can be provided by:

a) a premodifying restrictive attribute. It may be expressed by the following words: very, right, wrong, left, only, opposite, last, next, same, following, first, most:

Are we on the right road?

He is the only man for this position.

But: She is an only child in the family.

b) a postmodifying restrictive attribute. It may be a clause, a prepositional phrase, or a participial phrase:

I’m convinced Luke is the man we are looking for.

The woman standing by the window is my teacher.

The students of our institute are taking their exams in June.

c) the preceding context

The noun with the definite article may be a mere repetition of the noun mentioned before, or the reference to the words or statement just mentioned:

I saw a girl in the garden. The girl was crying bitterly.

“My wife has left me”. Daniel could hardly get the words out.

d) the situation

Though the object is mentioned for the first time, no attribute or context is necessary for the speaker to point out and for the listener to understand what object is meant:

After visiting a theatre: I liked the acting and the music.

After a flower exhibition: The flowers were splendid.

In everyday situations: Go to the kitchen. Pass the butter.

e) the meaning of the noun

The definite article in its specifying function is used with unique objects or notions: the sun, the moon, the earth, the sea, the world, the horizon, the south, the north:

The sky had cleared.

He sailed round the world.

The sun sank below the horizon.

Note: nouns denoting unique objects may be preceded by the indefinite article in its classifying function when some aspect or phase of the object is meant or when the word is used figuratively. Usually there is a descriptive attribute describing a noun:

The sun shone in an unclouded sky.

In this country she discovered a world of which she had never dreamed before.

A warm September sun was brightening the tree tops.