80.What does the term English Constitution mean? Can you name some important documents which contain the leading principles of government?

The constitution of the United Kingdom is the sum of laws and principles that make up the body politic of the United Kingdom. It concerns both the relationship between the individual and the state, and the functioning of the legislature, the executive and judiciary. Unlike many other nations, the UK has no single constitutional document. This is sometimes expressed by stating that it has an uncodified or "unwritten" constitution. Much of the British constitution is embodied in written documents, within statutes,court judgements, works of authority and treaties. The constitution has other unwritten sources, including parliamentary constitutional conventions. Since the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the bedrock of the British constitution has traditionally been the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, according to which the statutes passed by Parliament are the UK's supreme and final source of law. It follows that Parliament can change the constitution simply by passing new Acts of Parliament. There is some debate about whether this principle remains valid, particularly in light of the UK's membership in the European Union.

40, The First Court The Supreme Court was first called to assemble on Feb. 1, 1790, in the Merchants Exchange Building in New York City, then the Nation's Capital. The first Supreme Court was made up of:

Chief Justice: John Jay, from New York

Associate Justices: John Rutledge, from South Carolina William Cushing, from Massachusetts James Wilson, from Pennsylvania John Blair, from Virginia James Iredell, from North Carolina

Due to transportation problems, Chief Justice Jay had to postpone the first actual meeting of the Supreme Court until the next day, Feb. 2, 1790.

The Supreme Court spent its first session organizing itself and determining its own powers and duties. The new Justices heard and decided their first actual case in 1792.

Lacking any specific direction from the Constitution, the new U.S. Judiciary spent its first decade as the weakest of the three branches of government. Early federal courts failed to issue strong opinions or even take on controversial cases. The Supreme Court was not even sure if it had the power to consider the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. This situation changed drastically in 1801 when President John Adams appointed John Marshall of Virginia to be the fourth Chief Justice. Confident that nobody would tell him not to, Marshall took clear and firm steps to define the role and powers of both the Supreme Court and the judiciary system.

The Supreme Court, under John Marshall, defined itself with its historic 1803 decision in the case of Marbury v. Madison. In this single landmark case, the Supreme Court established its power to interpret the U.S. Constitution and to determine the constitutionality of laws passed by congress and the state legislatures.

41,

Commander in Chief Powers

Article II Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution, the Commander in Chief clause, states that "[t]he President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States."

The questions of whether and to what extent the President has the authority to use the military absent a Congressional declaration of war have proven to be sources of conflict and debate throughout American history. Some scholars believe the Commander in Chief Clause confers expansive powers on the President, but others argue that if even if that is the case, the Constitution does not define precisely the extent of those powers. These scholars tend to construe the Clause narrowly, asserting that the Founders gave the President the title to preserve civilian supremacy over the military, not to provide additional powers outside of a Congressional authorization or declaration of war.

War Powers Resolution

After the Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon Administrations spent nearly a decade committing U.S. troops to Southeast Asia without Congressional approval, in 1973 Congress responded by passing the War Powers Resolution. The Resolution sought to halt the erosion of Congress's ability to participate in war-making decisions, an aim furthered by the Resolution's requirement that the President communicate to Congress the commitment of troops within 48 hours. Further, the statute requires the President to remove all troops after 60 days if Congress has not granted an extension.

Commander in Chief Powers Post-9/11

The terrorist attacks of September 2001 created new complications for the separation of powers within the war powers sphere. After September 11, the United States Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force against Terrorists (AUMF). While the AUMF did not officially declare war, the legislation provided the President with more authority upon which to exercise his constitutional powers as Commander in Chief. As the U.S. Supreme Court explained in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, Presidential Commander in Chief powers increase when Congressional intent supports the actions taken by the Commander in Chief. The AUMF served as that expression of Congressional intent.

President George W. Bush, his cabinet, and his military advisers determined that the al Qaeda terrorist network had financed and perpetrated the September 11 attacks. They also determined that the Taliban, a group in control of theAfghanistan government, had permitted al Qaeda to operate and train its members within Afghanistan's borders. Thus, the President used military force to invade the country in an effort to destroy the al Qaeda network and topple the Taliban.

During the conflict, the U.S. military rounded up alleged members of the Taliban and others fighting against U.S. forces. The military then placed these "detainees" at a U.S. base located at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba at the direction of the Bush Administration, which believed that the base fell outside the jurisdiction of U.S. federal courts. Consequently, the Bush Administration and military believed that the detainees could not avail themselves of habeas corpus and certain other protections guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution.

The military held many of these prisoners at the Guantanamo base for years without bringing formal charges against them.  Prisoners obtained legal counsel in the U.S. to file habeas corpus petitions in U.S. federal court. A series of cases then came before the U.S. Supreme Court dealing with the constitutionality of the prisoners' detentions at Guantanamo.

42.

The coastline of the United Kingdom is more broken and has a fractal or Hausdorff dimension or 'wiggliness' of 1.25, which is higher than many other coastlines (Australian coastline has a fractal dimension of 1.13, and that of South Africa is very smooth at D = 1.02)^[1]of similar sized countries;^[2] it is accessible and very varied in geography and habitats.

The mapping authority for the United Kingdom, the Ordnance Survey, records the coastline of the main island, Great Britain, as 11,072.76 miles rounding to 11,073 miles (17,820 km). If the larger islands are added the coastline, as measured by the standard method at Mean High Water Mark, rises to about 19,491 miles (31,368 km).

The British Cartographic Society [1] points out that "The true answer is: it depends!". The length arrived at depends on the scale at which you measure it. It is a meaningless statistic without knowing the scale of the map being used and the accuracy of the measurement. The smaller (closer) the scale, the larger the answer. For example, according to the CIA Factbook, the length of the UK coastline is around 12,429 km^[3] or 7723 miles. Unfortunately the CIA Factbook figures provide no detail as to how this was calculated.

And because the resultant coastline length increases exponentially faster than the increase of scale of measurement, there is no such thing as 'an approximate answer" to this question.

Note that the measurement of any coastline is subject to variation depending upon the scale of map used and is an approximation. The smaller the map scale and the smaller the ruler will result in more detail being revealed and thus a greater length. This is referred to as thecoastline paradox. A coastline is also fractal-like — which means that it has self-similar properties, similar at every scale — the closer the observer looks, the more detail is revealed, leading to a greater overall length.)^{[citation needed]}

Nowhere in the UK is more than 113 kilometres (70 mi) from the coast. It is estimated that around 3 million people (out of 60 million) live on the coast of the UK. The place furthest from the coast is Coton in the Elms in Derbyshire, which is equidistant from Fosdyke Wash in Lincolnshire; White Sands between Neston inCheshire and Flint, Flintshire in Wales; and Westbury-on-Severn Gloucestershire.^[4][5]

The geography of the UK coastline consists of a variety of natural features. These consist of islands, bays, headlands and peninsulas. Of the 1,000+ islands within the UK, only 290 are permanently inhabited. Of the remaining islands, some are used for farming and are occupied occasionally, some are nature reserves with restricted access and some are little more than sea-swept rocks. The main occupied islands and island groups in the UK are as follows.

43.

The climate of Britain is more or less the same as that of the north-western part of the European mainland. The popular belief that it rains all the time in Britain is simply not true. The image of a wet, foggy land was created two thousand years ago by the invading Romans and has been perpetuated in modern times by Hollywood. In fact, London gets no more rain in a year than most other major European cities, and less than some.

The amount of rain that falls on a town in Britain depends on where it is. Generally speaking, the further west you go, the more rain you get. The mild winters mean that snow is a regular feature of the higher areas only. Occasionally, a whole winter goes by in lower-lying parts without any snow at all. The winters are in general a bit colder in the east of the country than they are in the west, while in summer, the south is slightly warmer and sunnier than the north.

Why has Britain's climate got such a bad reputation? Perhaps it is for the same reason that British people always seem to be talking about the weather. This is its changeability. There is a saying that Britain doesn't have a climate, it only has weather. It may not rain very much altogether, but you can never be sure of a dry day; there can be cool (even cold) days in July and some quite warm days in January.

The lack of extremes is the reason why, on the few occasions when in gets genuinely hot or freezing cold, the country seems to be totally unprepared for it. A bit of snow and a few days of frost and the trains stop working and the roads are blocked; if the thermometer goes above 27°C (80°F), people behave as if they were in the Sahara and the temperature makes front-page headlines. These things happen so rarely that it is not worth organizing life to be ready for them.

44.

London is one of the leading world centers for drama, music, opera and dance. Some 650 professional arts festivals take place each year. The Edinburgh International Festival is the largest of its kind in the world. 

Theatre

Britain has about 300 theatres intended for professional use, of which about 100 are in London, including the Royal National Theatre. The Royal Shakespeare Company performs in Stratford-upon-Avon, Shakespeare's birthplace, and in London. Sixty-four companies receive subsidies from the Arts Councils. Contemporary British playwrights who have received international recognition include Harold Pinter, Alan Ayckbourn, Caryl Churchill and David Hare. The musicals of Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, including "Evita", "Cats" and "Phantom of the Opera", have been highly successful in Britain, New York and around the world.

Music

There is music for every taste in Britain including opera, choral and classical orchestras pieces, rock and pop, folk and jazz, military and brass bands, acoustic and newly emerging musical collaborations such as music theatre, music video and music with live arts. In musical composition, experimentation is in vogue, with composers mixing their sources: medieval modes and minimalism, quotations from Wagner and from Debussy, Indian melodies and African rhythms. Since the early 60s with the emergence of the Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and the Who, through the 70s with Genesis, Led Zeppelin and Pink Floyd and the 80s with Dire Straits and The Police and punk pioneers like The Sex Pistols and others, British bands have generated major followings worldwide representing a multi-million dollar industry. And the legacy continued into the 90 with Pop phenoms The Spice Girls and groups like Oasis, The Verve, Jamiroquai, and the list goes on. British Pop music is alive and well and will continue to be in 2000 and beyond.  Britain's leading symphony orchestras include the London Philharmonic, the City of Birmingham Symphony, and the Ulster and the Royal Scottish Orchestras. There are also chamber orchestras such as the English Chamber Orchestra and the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields. British conductors such as Sir Colin Davis, Simon Rattle and Jane Glover reach a wide audience through their recordings as well as their performances. Well known composers include Sir Michael Tippett and Sir Harrison Birtwistle, Percussionist Evelyn Glennie and violinist Nigel Kennedy are among solo performers currently enjoying great acclaim.

Opera

Opera is enjoying unprecedented audiences and attention in the 90s due to performances on television and well publicized commercial recordings of the classics. Royal Opera, Covent Gardens, and the English National Opera are the main London opera companies. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own opera companies. Scottish Opera has regular seasons at the Theatre Royal in Glasgow and tours mainly in Scotland and northern England. Welsh National Opera presents seasons in Cardiff and other cities in England. Northern Ireland Opera performs in towns and cities in Northern Ireland.

Dance

Audiences have a wide choice of dance in Britain including classical ballet, African people's Dance, physical theatre, jazz, new dance and contemporary dance. The lion's share of Arts Council funding for dance, about 90 percent goes to support the Royal Ballet (housed with the Royal Opera in Covent Garden), the Birmingham Royal Ballet, which tours widely in Britain and overseas; English National Ballet, which performs in London and regionally; Northern Ballet Theatre, based in Halifax which tours mostly in the north of England; and Scottish Ballet based in Glasgow. Britain's leading contemporary dance company, the Ballet Rambert is also subsidized by the Arts Council, as is the London Contemporary Dance Theatre which has regular seasons in London and tours. Adzido Pan African Dance Ensemble is also supported and the KOSH which combines dance, theatre and acrobatics.  Recently, South Asian dance and African People's dance have increased in popularity. Since the 70s and the introduction of 'animateurs' (usually a professionally trained dance artist who provides a range of dance activity within a specific locality) a greater public awareness of dance is evident. As a result, six new national dance agencies were established in Birmingham, Leeds, Leicester, London, Newcastle and Swindon to offer training, management support and creative opportunities for artists. These agencies either program and produce dance productions themselves or work closely in partnerships with promoters.

Dance

Audiences have a wide choice of dance in Britain including classical ballet, African people's Dance, physical theatre, jazz, new dance and contemporary dance. The lion's share of Arts Council funding for dance, about 90 percent goes to support the Royal Ballet (housed with the Royal Opera in Covent Garden), the Birmingham Royal Ballet, which tours widely in Britain and overseas; English National Ballet, which performs in London and regionally; Northern Ballet Theatre, based in Halifax which tours mostly in the north of England; and Scottish Ballet based in Glasgow. Britain's leading contemporary dance company, the Ballet Rambert is also subsidized by the Arts Council, as is the London Contemporary Dance Theatre which has regular seasons in London and tours. Adzido Pan African Dance Ensemble is also supported and the KOSH which combines dance, theatre and acrobatics.  Recently, South Asian dance and African People's dance have increased in popularity. Since the 70s and the introduction of 'animateurs' (usually a professionally trained dance artist who provides a range of dance activity within a specific locality) a greater public awareness of dance is evident. As a result, six new national dance agencies were established in Birmingham, Leeds, Leicester, London, Newcastle and Swindon to offer training, management support and creative opportunities for artists. These agencies either program and produce dance productions themselves or work closely in partnerships with promoters.

Film

British films, actors and the creative and technical services which support them are acclaimed at international film festivals. The industry also produces films for television. Their are many well known British performers, three of the best known being Sean Connery, Michael Caine and Kenneth Branaugh.

Museums

There are about 2,500 museums and art galleries in Britain. The major national museums, many of which are in London, have world-famous artistic, archaeological, scientific and historical collections. They include the British Museum, The Natural History Museum, the National Gallery and the Tate Gallery. Many ob Britain's greap private houses (some open to the public) are of prime architectural interest and also contain art treasures.

Libraries

Britain's libraries help to maintain the wealth of English literature and culture. The British Council promotes knowledge of British culture overseas and maintains libraries in many of the 95 countries where it is represented. In Britain,The British Library, Britain's national library is one of the world's three largest. Many British novelists are internationally recognized. They include the Nobel prize-winner Sir William Golding, Martin Amis, A.S. Byatt and Jeanette Winterson. Well known poets include Ted Hughes, Tony Harrison and Wendy Cope.

45

The conception of the separation of powers has been applied to the United Kingdom and the nature of its executive (UK government, Scottish Government, Welsh Government andNorthern Ireland Executive), judicial (England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland) and legislative (UK Parliament, Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales andNorthern Ireland Assembly) functions. Historically, the apparent merger of the executive and the legislature, with a powerful Prime Minister drawn from the largest party in parliament and usually with a safe majority, led theorists to contend that the separation of powers is not applicable to the United Kingdom. However, in recent years it does seem to have been adopted as a necessary part of the UK constitution.

The independence of the judiciary has never been questioned as a principle, although application is problematic. Personnel have been increasingly isolated from the other organs of government, no longer sitting in the House of Lords or in the Cabinet. The court's ability to legislate through precedent, its inability to question validly enacted law through legislative supremacy and parliamentary sovereignty, and the role of the Europe-wide institutions to legislate, execute and judge on matters also define the boundaries of the UK system.

46.

The passage of legislation is the House of Commons’ primary function. Almost all legislation proceeds from the majority party in the Commons, which forms the government and the cabinet; the latter is composed of senior ministers chosen by, and belonging to the party of, the prime minister, nearly all of whom serve in the House of Commons. The government’s main work in the Commons is to implement the legislative program on which it fought and won the last general election.

At the beginning of each new session of Parliament, the House elects from its members thespeaker, who presides over and regulates debates and rules on points of order and members’ conduct. The speaker does not participate in debates and votes only in order to break a tie, a case that compels the speaker to vote in favour of the status quo. The calling of members to speak in debate is entirely in the speaker’s hands, the main concern being to ensure that a variety of points of view is heard. By a convention of the constitution not established until the 20th century, the prime minister is always a member of the House of Commons, instead of a member of either house. The government party appoints the leader of the House of Commons, who manages the party’s legislative program. Except for occasional independents, members of both the government and opposition parties are under the control of party management within the Commons, whose discipline—particularly over voting—is exercised by members called “whips.”

47,

A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the monarch acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution, whether written or unwritten.^[4] While the monarch may hold formal reserve powers and government may officially take place in the monarch's name, they do not set public policy or choose political leaders. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as "a sovereign who reigns but does not rule."^[5] In addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving Royal Assent to legislation. However, the exercise of such powers is generally a formality rather than an opportunity for the sovereign to enact personal political preference. In The English Constitution, British political theorist Walter Bagehot identified three main political rights which a constitutional monarch could freely exercise: the right to be consulted, the right to advise, and the right to warn. Some constitutional monarchs, however, retain significant power and influence and play an important political role.

48) The foreign policy of the United States - a set of foreign policy objectives and the methods used by the United States to other countries. The foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the State Department, headed by the Secretary of State.Official foreign policy doctrine is reduced to the interests of a more secure, democratic, and prosperous world for the benefit of citizens of the United States and the international community. The United States has played a critical role in international relations, with the most advanced in the world network of diplomatic missions. United States - a founding member of the United Nations and the North Atlantic Alliance, a member of the UN Security Council. US diplomacy takes an active part in the resolution of a significant number of international conflicts and disputes.

№ 49. Describe the essential differences between Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England.

The population of England and Wales was the result of the mixing of many nations, but now has a rather uniform composition.

England - a country of one language and many dialects and Wales - a bilingual region. Differences dialects in England are so great that difficulties arise when dealing with people who possess only a certain dialect.

The Anglican Church has official status in the UK, but in Wales it was 31 March 1920. In England there are two archbishopric - with residences in Canterbury and York. Before 1920 the church in Wales was part of the archbishopric of Canterbury. Now it forms an independent archbishopric called Church of Wales. In 1851 perpisyah not registered religion, but it is estimated that 2/3 of the natives of England belong to the Church of E As a major part of the UK, England is home to about 84% of the population of the United Kingdom and geographically covers approximately 57% of the UK. London - the capital of England and the largest city in the UK, was the ruling center of government in the United Kingdom since 1707. However, in 1999, Scotland and Wales have been given the power to self-government. Therefore, the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales now has some ruling power. ngland. The Church in Wales has 165 thousand. Member

Scotland UK occupies the upper part. Scotland was a separate country from England to 1603, when the King of Scotland, James VI, inherited the English throne. The country remained separate until the Acts of Union were passed in 1707, uniting the English and Scottish Parliaments united in the United Kingdom Parliament. By this time Britain already controlled Wales and Ireland.

Wales, on the other hand, occupies the south-western region of the United Kingdom and is separated from Ireland and Northern Ireland by the Irish Sea. Wales brings together a very complex history with England, embraced many centuries, but it is officially considered separate from England in 1955.

The last component of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland, established in 1920 and is an independent Ireland. The relief of the southern and eastern parts of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - hilly upland and lowland oak woodlands. Ireland and Northern Ireland covers the western part of the island with from the UK. They are considered to be Irish, on the one hand, and the UK (England, Scotland and Wales), on the other. The structure of the British Isles includes thousands of small other islands. The island of Ireland, White, Hebrides, Isle of Man, Shetland, Channel, Orkney, Anglesey and the Isle of Scilly, are among the most famous in the British Isles.

№50. If the President can no longer serve, the Vice President becomes President. Is it true? Prove your answer.

Vice President of the United States shall be President

The Senate, but shall have no vote, unless

Senators are not equally divided.

The Senate shall elect other officers, as well as the Chairman

pro tempore during the absence of the Vice President, or execution

his duties as President of the United States.

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each...

The person having the greatest Number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed...

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed...

Elections in accordance with Amendment 12

Twelfth Amendment seriously changed the electoral process works, but does not change the order of their election. It was first used in 1804. According to this amendment, each elector votes for president and vice president on separate ballots. In this case, the rule prohibiting vote for two candidates from one state to the elector preserved. It was clarified that the Vice-President shall act as President only if he is not elected. At the same time, Congress was right to determine who will perform the duties of the President if not elected neither the President nor Vice-President.

Upon the death, resignation, or removal from office of an incumbent President, the Vice President assumes the office. The President must be at least 35 years of age, has to have lived in the United States for 14 years, and has to be a "natural born" citizen of the United States.

№51 We elect a President for four years. Is it true? Prove your answer.

Under the United States Constitution, the President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. As chief of the executive branch and head of the federal government as a whole, the presidency is the highest political office in the United States by influence and recognition. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is indirectly elected to a four-year term by an Electoral College (or by the House of Representatives, should the Electoral College fail to award an absolute majority of votes to any person). Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected President more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.[1] Upon the death, resignation, or removal from office of an incumbent President, the Vice President assumes the office. The President must be at least 35 years of age, has to have lived in the United States for 14 years, and has to be a "natural born" citizen of the United States.

№52 The President is in charge of the executive branch. Is it true? Prove your answer.

In a presidential system the leader of the executive branch is both the head of state and head of government. In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature is the head of government, while the head of state is usually a largely ceremonial monarch or president. In the United States, this branch of the government is controlled by the President and his cabinet.

The power of the Executive Branch is vested in the President of the United States, who also acts as head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws written by Congress and, to that end, appoints the heads of the federal agencies, including the Cabinet. The Vice President is also part of the Executive Branch, ready to assume the Presidency should the need arise.

№53 If both the President and the Vice President can no longer serve, the Speaker of the House becomes President. Is it true? Prove your answer.

The Speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession, after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate.[2] Unlike some Westminster system parliaments, in which the office of Speaker is considered non-partisan, in the United States, the Speaker of the House is a leadership position and the office-holder actively works to set the majority party's legislative agenda. The Speaker usually does not personally preside over debates, instead delegating the duty to members of the House from the majority party.

If the vice president cannot serve, the line of succession falls to the speaker of the House, then to the Senate president pro tempore, then to Cabinet members.

№54.  The President of the USA signs bills to become laws. Is it true? Prove your answer.

A signing statement is a written pronouncement issued by the President of the United States upon the signing of a bill into law. They are usually printed along with the bill in United States Code Congressional and Administrative News (USCCAN).

During the administration of President George W. Bush, there was a controversy over the President's use of signing statements, which critics charged was unusually extensive and modified the meaning of statutes. The practice predates the Bush administration, however, and has since been continued by the Obama administration.^[1] In July 2006, a task force of the American Bar Association stated that the use of signing statements to modify the meaning of duly enacted laws serves to "undermine the rule of law and our constitutional system of separation of powers".^[2]

1. Vote - the bill is voted on. If passed, it is then sent to the other chamber unless that chamber already has a similar measure under consideration. If either chamber does not pass the bill then it dies. If the House and Senate pass the same bill then it is sent to the President. If the House and Senate pass different bills they are sent to Conference Committee. Most major legislation goes to a Conference Committee.

№55. The President's Cabinet advises the President. Is it true? Prove your answer.

A cabinet is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the top leaders of the executive branch, usually called ministers or some other title.

Members of the President's Cabinet act as his official advisory group and head executive departments. The President appoints members of his cabinet and the Senate must confirm them.

The Cabinet and independent federal agencies are responsible for the day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws. These departments and agencies have missions and responsibilities as widely divergent as those of the Department of Defense and the Environmental Protection Agency, the Social Security Administration and the Securities and Exchange Commission.

the heads of which are not part of the Cabinet, but who are under the full authority of the President. The President also appoints the heads of more than 50 independent federal commissions, such as the Federal Reserve Board or the Securities and Exchange Commission, as well as federal judges, ambassadors, and other federal offices.

The President’s Cabinet is composed of the principal appointed officers of departments of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States. The Cabinet meets weekly to advise the President on matters relating to the duties of their respective departments.

The President’s Cabinet is the principle information distribution, discussion, and deliberation forum for UNI. Cabinet advises the President and the Executive Management Team and provides effective, responsive, and informed leadership and recommendations to the university. The Cabinet meets to discuss policy and operational issues affecting the university; to offer recommendations and perspectives on university-wide policies and practices; and to serve as a sounding board for ideas and new initiatives.

№56. Democratic and Republican are the two major political parties in the United States. The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP (abbreviation for Grand Old Party), is one of the two major contemporarypolitical parties in the United States, the other being the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery activists in 1854, the GOP dominated politics nationally and in most of the North for most of the period from 1860 to 1932. There have been 18 Republican presidents, the first being Abraham Lincoln, who served from 1861 until his assassination in 1865, and the most recent being George W. Bush, who served two full four-year terms 2001 to 2009. The most recent Republican presidential nominee was formerMassachusetts governor Mitt Romney who lost in 2012.

Republican Party[edit]

Main article: Republican Party (United States)

The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States of America. Since the 1880s it has been nicknamed (by the media) the "Grand Old Party" or GOP, although it is younger than the Democratic Party.

Founded in 1854 by Northern anti-slavery activists and modernizers, the Republican Party rose to prominence in 1860 with the election of Abraham Lincoln, who used the party machinery to support victory in the American Civil War. The GOP dominated national politics during the Third Party System, from 1854 to 1896, and the Fourth Party System from 1896 to 1932. Today, the Republican Party supports an American conservative platform, with further foundations in economic liberalism, fiscal conservatism, and social conservatism.

Former President George W. Bush is the 19th Republican to hold that office. The party's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 presidential election was Mitt Romney, former Governor of Massachusetts. Since the 2010 midterm elections, the Republicans have held a majority in the United States House of Representatives.

USA Today '​s review of state voter rolls indicates that registered Republicans declined in 21 of 28 states (not all states register voters by party) and that Republican registrations were down 350,000 in 2011. The number of independents rose in 18 states, increasing by 325,000 in 2011, and was up more than 400,000 from 2008, or 1.7%.^[10]

Democratic Party[edit]

Main article: Democratic Party (United States)

The Democratic Party is one of two major political parties in the U.S. It is the oldest political party in the world.^[7][8]

The Democratic Party, since the division of the Republican Party in the election of 1912, has positioned itself as the liberal party on domestic issues. The economic philosophy of Franklin D. Roosevelt, which has strongly influenced American liberalism, has shaped much of the party's agenda since 1932. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition controlled the White House until 1968 with the exception of Eisenhower 1953-1961.

In 2004, it was the largest political party, with 72 million voters (42.6% of 169 million registered) claiming affiliation.^[9] The president of the United States, Barack Obama, is the 15th Democrat to hold the office, and since the 2006 midterm elections, the Democratic Party is the majority party for the United States Senate.

A 2011 USA Today review of state voter rolls indicates that registered Democrats declined in 25 of 28 states (some states do not register voters by party). Democrats were still the largest political party with more than 42 million voters (compared with 30 million Republicans and 24 million independents). But in 2011 Democrats numbers shrank 800,000, and from 2008 they were down by 1.7 million, or 3.9%.^[10]

57.

At age eighteen (18) and older citizens have to be to vote for President. Is it true? Prove your answer.

In 1801 the right to vote in the United Kingdom was a severely restricted practice. Universal suffrage, on an equal basis for men and women over the age of 21, was established in 1929. Before 1918, general elections did not occur on a single day and polling was spread over several week. the right to vote was first accorded in democracies the voting age was generally set at 21, or in some cases even older. In the 1970s the voting age was reduced to 18 in many countries. Debate is currently under way in many places on proposals to reduce the voting age below 16.

58.

(George) Washington was the first President. Is It true? Prove your answer.

George Washington-was the first President of the United States(1789–1797), theCommander-in-Chiefof theContinental Armyduring theAmerican Revolutionary War, and one of theFounding Fathers of the United States.^[3] He presided over the convention that drafted the United States Constitution, which replaced theArticles of Confederationand remains the supremelaw of the land. Washington was elected president as the unanimous choice of theelectorsin the elections of both1788–1789and1792.^[4] He oversaw the creation of a strong, well-financed national government that maintained neutrality in the wars raging in Europe, suppressed rebellion, and won acceptance among Americans of all types.^[5] Washington established many forms in government still used today, such as the cabinet systemandinaugural address.^[6][7] His retirement after two terms and the peaceful transition from his presidency to that of John Adamsestablished a tradition that continued up untilFranklin D. Rooseveltwas elected to a third term.^[8] Washington has been widely hailed as "father of his country" even during his lifetime.

59.

Britain has a constitutional Monarchy in which the King or The Queen have unlimited powers. Is it true? Prove your answer.

Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom.

In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State. The British monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected Parliament.

Although the British Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an important part in the life of the nation.

As Head of State, The Monarch undertakes constitutional and representational duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. In addition to these State duties, The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of Nation'. The Sovereign acts as a focus for national identity, unity and pride; gives a sense of stability and continuity; officially recognises success and excellence; and supports the ideal of voluntary service.

In all these roles The Sovereign is supported by members of their immediate family.

60.

Civil Servants are political appointees. Is it true? Prove your answer.

The Civil Service helps the government of the day develop and implement its policies as effectively as possible.

The Civil Service provides services directly to people all over the country, including:

paying benefits and pensions

running employment services

running prisons

issuing driving licences

They are co-ordinated and managed by the Prime Minister, in his role as Minister for the Civil Service. The most senior civil servant in a department is a permanent secretary. There are currently 412,000 civil servants on a full-time equivalent basis and 447,000 on a headcount basis. Almost three-quarters of civil servants work outside London and the south-east.

Women represent 53% of civil servants and 37% of senior civil servants.

9.6% of the service comes from an ethnic minority background.

8.6% have declared themselves as having a disability.

An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee that is employed by an intergovernmental organization

61.