B. Np1 have (has) np2 (d)

E.g.The room has three windows (in it) The room with three windows

The boy has a pencil (in his right hand) The boy with a pencil

The man has a straw hat (on) The man with a straw hat.

There seems to be an intermediate structure with the functions words 'who ' or ' which "

The room which has three windows,"

"The boy who has a pencil in his right hand,"

"The man who has a straw that (on)."

The negative transform of this sentence structure will be nominalised with the preposition 'without':

E.g. The man has no hat on the man without a hat

The room has no windows the (a) room without windows

The procedures used are:

(1) deletion of 'have',

(2) introducing the prepositions 'with' or 'without'.

С NP, HAVE NP₂ (in it) (D is restricted here to 'in it', 'in them').

The V HAVE in such sentences can be substituted with the V 'contain^’ which makes these sentences a special type:

E.g.The bottle has (contains) milk (in it) a bottle of milk

The cup has (contains) tea a cup of tea

The bowls has (contains) sugar a bowl of sugar

The procedures applied are:

(1) deletion of HAVE.

(2) introduction of the preposition.

The transforms retain the relations of the kernel sentence or the underly­ing sentence. The change of the determiner shows that the N-transforms are easily generalised.

The origin of these transforms from sentences with HAVE or 'contain' show that they are different from the transforms originated from kernel sen­tences with BE:

"the bottle is for milk" "the bottle for milk" "the milk bottle."

Both transforms retain the relations and the semantics of the kernel sentences "the bottle is for milk" and "The bottle has (contains) milk in it."

When the meaning of an N-transform is not quite clear, the NP must be traced back to the kernel sentence it is derived from, and the meaning of the N-transform becomes quite clear.

There are some N-constructions that seem to be ambiguous. Thus Robert Lees writes that "John's picture" may be derived from two kernel sentences with HAVE and with BE: "John has a picture (of Mary)" and "The picture was of John."

It is more likely that the kernel sentence here is that with BE only, be­cause there is a series of analogous sentences and their N-transforms that admit of only one understanding:

E.g.The figure was of Samson the figure of Samson

The picture was of everyday life the picture of everyday life

The picture was of a young man the (a) picture of a young man

Two N-transforms may seem to be generated from the same kernel sen­tence: "the (a) picture of a young man" and "a young man's picture," but they render different information; the second NP does not express possession, but only the kind of picture, corresponding to the Russian nominal phrase with an A: " мужской портрет", "женский портрет", etc.

There is also a special construction corresponding to the sentence "The young man painted the picture," "Rembrandt painted the portrait," that is "a portrait of Rembrandt’s" "a portrait of the young man's."

D. Sentences with HAVE are nominalised when we change the V into V-ing or V-to. This change is done on the morphological level.

NP₁ is transformed into a possessive determiner before V-ing or it is pre­ceded by the preposition 'for', if the V is transformed into V-to. NP - a per­sonal pronoun - is changed to the object case. All these transformations are done on the morphological level.

(1) E.g.The man has a son the man's having a son. The man's having a grown up son surprised her

An artist has a sense of beauty the artist's having a sense of beauty.

He spoke about the artist('s) having a sense of beauty.

He has a taste for literature his having a taste for literature.

We spoke of his (him) having a taste for literature.

(2) The man had much experience in teaching for the man to have much experience in teaching.

It's important for the man to have much experience in teaching.

She has a talent for painting for her to have a talent for painting.

It was good luck for her to have a talent for painting.

* * *

VI. Transformations of sentences with VI (Intransitive)

A.NP VI ( D ) TN / V of NP ( N / V is an N derived from V)

E.g.The seagull shrieked the shriek of the seagull

Little Nell died the death of little Nell

Lucifer fell the fall of Lucifer

The bird sang the song of the bird.

The procedures applied belong to two levels, morphemic and syntactic. On the morphemic level the V is substituted by the derivative N, on the syntactic level the two NP are permutated and the preposition 'of is introduced be­tween them.

The N-transform retains the relations of 'actor action', it represents concrete events, and is not so easily generalised since the determiner is definite.

2. Some other nominalising transformations may be applied to sentences with VI (intransitive): VT-ing of NP; NP's V-ing.

On the morphemic level the V changes into V-ing on the syntactic level the two N are permutated with the insertion of the preposition 'of between them, or -'s:

E.g.The bird sings the singing of the bird, the bird's singing

The dog barks the barking of the dog, the dog's barking

The chimney smokes the smoking of the chimney, the chimney's smoking.

The girl dances the dancing of the girl, the girl's dancing

The 'actor - action' relations are preserved in the N-transforms

Another transform may be derived from the same sentences with VI: "the singing bird," "the barking dog," "the smoking chimney," "the dancing girl".

There are restrictions for these nominalising transformations thus "the chimney's smoking" is not acceptable because 'chimney' is an inanimate N; "the smoking girl" is not acceptable because 'smoking' is a VT, not a VI The NP "the dancing hall" is the product of the sentence with BE “The hall is for dancing."

C. On the morphemic level the V is changed into V-to, on the syntactic level it is preceded by N with the function word 'for':

E.g.The bird sings for the bird to sing

The man drinks for the man to drink

The dog barks for the dog to bark

When the NP of the kernel sentence is general personal, as 'one' 'peo­ple', 'everybody', and the like, the 'for NP' is zeroed. "It's pleasant to read a good book." "It's a pleasure to hear a good song."

D. The N-transform may express 'thing-place' relation.

"The road was (lay, lead, stretched) ahead (to the station) the road to the station.

The V synonymous to BE are deleted.

E. All these transforms can be used in NP positions.

(1) The position of the first NP (subject).

E.g. The death of the man changed everything.

The barking of the dogs became louder.

The girl's dancing was beautiful.

A smoking chimney loomed in the distance.

For the bird to sing is natural.

For the driver to drink is dangerous.

(2) In the position of the second NP (object).

E.g. She heard about the death of the man.

I suggest for us to sing a song.

We admired the girl's dancing.

I heard a barking dog.

We must avoids/or the baby to fall.

(3) In the position of NP after BE.

E.g. This is the barking of the dog.

That was a smoking chimney.

The best thing was the dancing of the Polovetz girls.

It was the fall of the man that frightened me.

(4) After A.

E.g. It is harmful for a man to drink much.

It is natural for a dog to bark.

It is for a baby to have a fall.

VII. Nominalisations of sentences with VT (Transitive), in the N-transforms of these sentences different relations can be rendered repeating the relations of the underlying structures: 'actor - action' relations, 'action - object' relations, 'action - place of action' or 'action - time of action' relations.

A. NP₁ V₁ Т NP₂ TN / V (er) of N₂

E.g. They lead the party the leaders of the party

He manages the bank the manager of the bank

He lives books the lover of books.

The operations applied are: (1) on the morphemic level the noun is de­rived from the V, (2) on the syntactic level the NP₂ is connected with N/V by the preposition 'of'.

B. The same kernel sentences may produce different N-transforms: on the morphemic level the V is transformed into V-ing and NP₁ is transformed into NP's:

their leading the party

his managing the bank

his loving books

This transformation can be applied to all structures with VT.

NP₁ VT NP₂ NP₁'s V-ing NP₂

E.g. The girl read the poem the girl's readingpoem

The man said it the man's saying it.

We saw them off our seeing them off

The boy met us the boy's meeting us.

In these two kinds of transforms 'actor - action object' relations are rendered.

In the next nominalising transformation – action – relations are rendered. The transformation involves two levels. On the morphemic level the N/V by the preposition 'of'.

С. The formula here is as follows:

NP₁ VT NP₂ NP₁'s (or some other determiner) TN/V of NP₂

E.g. They loved the beautiful their love of (for)the beautiful.

He composed his stories the compositionof his stories

They treated the children cruelly their cruel treatment of the children.

D. The active construction can be first transformed into passive and then nominalised.

They smoke fish fish is smoked smoked fish

He wrote a poem the poem was written the written poem.

The hunter killed a bear the bear was killed the killed bear

She finished the letter the letter was finished the finished letter

E. Sentences with 'make (up)', 'form' have a special way of being nominalised.

E.g. The ice made a film on the pond a film was made by ice (on the pond) a film was made of ice a film of ice.

The (sparkling) drops made a fountain a fountain was made by drops a fountain was made of drops a fountain of (sparkling) drops.

The foam formed a line a line was formed of foam a line of foam.

The kernel sentence is first transformed into a passive construction, then the preposition is changed into 'of ', and at last the V 'make' or 'form' is crossed out.

Such N-transforms are very much used in English, "a streak of yellow," "a cloud of dust," "a heap of grain," "a line of snowy mountain peaks," "a pool of water," etc.

F. Adverbial relations of place and time are rendered in the following N-transforms:

E.g. He studies six more years his six more years of study.

The man came from the East the man from the East.

G. The transforms with V-to.

E.g. They loved the beautiful for them to love the beautiful

They lead the soldiers for them to lead the soldiers

She read several poems for her to read several poems.

All these N-transforms can be used in the NP positions in other sen­tences.

H. In the position of NP₁ (subject).

E.g. Lowers of books often visit second-hand book shops.

His managing the bank was a success.

The man's saying it put me on my guard.

Their love for children was genuine.

For them to love the beautiful was essential.

The killed bear was enormous.