8.6 The Origin of Phraseological Units

Phraseological units have many peculiarities of their own. They are considered anomalies of language by some. Their meanings cannot be predicted from the meaning of their constituents, and they have either partially or fully transferred meanings. The origin of PU is different. Some are related to memorable events; some are political; still others are religious. Kunin identifies native and borrowed phraseological units (1996).

8.6.1 Native Phraseological Units

The origin of the majority of phraseological units is unknown, but they may reflect traditions, memorable events, customs, and beliefs of English-speaking people. They have come from the beggars’ hovels and from courts of kings. Among native phraseological units, we find the following:

• Phraseological units alluding to memorable events: to set the Thames on fire seems to refer to the Great Fire of London.

• Phraseological units coming from the sea or maritime trade: to go by the board means to be cast aside; to be ruined or irretrievable lost. A ‘board’ is the side of the ship, and everything which goes by the board falls over the side and is lost. This phraseological unit applies to ideas, projects, and values which are discarded for any reason (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, p. 37). To nail one’s colours to the mast (to be resolute, unwavering in one’s opinions and principles; to declare one’s allegiance publicly) refers to battleships, which always fly their colors—their national ensign. If the flag was taken down, that meant “surrender”; however, if a flag was literally nailed to the mast, it showed the crew’s desire to fight on (p.61). In the phrase to sail under false colors, “colors” are the ship’s national flag which every vessel was obligated to fly. However, pirates would hoist the ensign of a friendly nation to approach closer, without exciting suspicion, and then attack. To show oneself in one’s true colors (to make one’s true opinion known, to show one’s true self) may refer to the same situation when the pirates would unfurl their own flag, the skull and the crossbones, revealing their true identity (p.61).

• Phraseological units referring to the battlefield or arts of warfare: to beat a (hasty) retreat (to leave, unusually in a hurry; to abandon an undertaking). Drums were a part of the war machine, and soldiers took their orders from their beats. Retreat was one of orders which would sound every evening to signal soldiers to get behind the lines when darkness fell, and this was the signal for the guards to present themselves for duty (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, p. 18). To bite the bullet means to show courage in facing a difficult or unpleasant situation. On the battlefields of the last century, the wounded men were encouraged to bite on a bullet to help them forget the pain in the absence of pain-killers and anesthetics (p. 27).

• Biblical phraseological units: the phrase to turn the other cheek originated from the Bible, meaning ‘to ignore abuse or insult; to have an attitude of patience and forgiveness.’ In Matthew 5:39 Jesus exhorts his followers with these words: “But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also” (p.49. The phrase “to kill the fatted calf” in the story of the prodigal son is used in the direct meaning. Later, to kill the fatted calf acquired a new meaning; ‘to prepare an elaborate banquet (in someone’s honor); to provide plenty of the best food, drink, or other comfort.’ Some phraseological units originated from a plot recorded in the Bible. A doubting Thomas originated when one of Christ’s apostles, Thomas by name, expressed disbelief when he was confronted by the resurrected Jesus Christ after the crucifixion. Some phraseological units have been created by the use of puns. The phraseological unit, the land of Nod, appeared as the result of the humorous play on words based on the same sounding of two English word ‘nod’ meaning sleepiness and ‘Nod’ the name of the Biblical land Nod, where Cain was banished after he had murdered his brother Abel. The phraseologism was created by J. Swift, “Go into the land of Nod,” meaning ‘to enter a polite conversation.’

• Occupational phraseological units: Let the cat out of the bag (to reveal a secret or surprise by accident) originated from trade. Unscrupulous vendors in medieval markets displayed their sample products openly for everyone to see; however, when a customer decided to buy something, he or she was given a already packed and tied bag. If a pig was shown for a sale, the bag might contain a cat, so if a wary customer decided to check the bag, he or she might let the cat out of the bag, therefore revealing the deception (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, p. 49).

• Phraseological units illustrating sports and games: to pass the buck (to pass the responsibility on to someone else or to pass the blame to someone else) is a poker term which refers to the marker (buck) that was placed in front of a player to show that it was his or her turn to deal (p. 41). In gambling, the chips are down means ‘to be close to failure or defeat; to be at the final, critical moment; to have had one’s last chance’ when all the bets have been placed, but the outcome is not known yet (p.52).

• Phraseological units referring to everyday life: to be taken to the cleaners means ‘to lose all one’s money, to be ruined.’ A person is stripped clean of everything of value (p.54). I could sleep on a clothes line means ‘I am so tired that I can sleep anywhere.’ It refers to poverty of the nineteenth century when poor people would buy for two pence a night’s lodging on the two-penny rope. These people could sit on a bench and put their bodies on the rope stretched in front of them. In the morning the landlord would cut the rope to wake his or her guests (p.55). To have a finger in the (every) pie means ‘to have a role in something; to be involved in something.’ There is an implication of meddling in other people’s business (p.86).

• Phraseological units reflecting English traditions and customs: to ride a high horse and on one’s high horse. In the fourteenth century John Wyclif recorded that in a royal pageant, persons of high ranks were mounted on ‘high’ horses. The tradition died; however, the phrase remained meaning the person considered himself or herself very important and superior to others. It relates to an arrogant person (Funk, 1993). The Blue Ribbon, the highest distinction, the pick of the bunch, is the most desired Order of Knighthood in Britain. It is used in conjunction with something outstanding (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, p. 34). To carry coals to Newcastle means expressing the futility of taking something to a place where it already exists in great quantity. Put somebody in the cart means ‘to put somebody in reduced circumstances, in a difficult position in which one is likely to be scolded; to put in trouble.’ A cart is a wagon which carried criminals to the place of execution.

• Phraseological units connected with beliefs: to have an itching palm (or palms) or to have an itchy palm means ‘to have a great desire for money and wealth’ or ‘to be in need of a tip.’ This phraseological unit refers to an old belief that an itching palm indicated that a person is about to receive money.

• Phraseological units connected with some superstitions: to get out of bed in the wrong side (to be bad tempered, grumpy). The wrong side of the bed is left. According to a superstition, it is unlucky to get out of bed on the left side because that is where devils dwell, and they will be with that person the whole day (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, p.20).

• Phraseological units coming from fables, parables, stories, legends, novels, plays, and poems: A chip off the old block, meaning ‘a child who is like his or her father in appearance and character, or both,’ was used by John Milton in 1642: “How well dost thou appear to be a chip of the old block?” (p.51). To kiss the Blarney stone means ‘to have the ability to persuade, praise, or deceive with charming talk.’ According to the legend, a person who has kissed the stone at Blarney Castle near Cork, Ireland, is given the gift of flattery. Pope gave many phraseological units to the common vocabulary of the English-speaking world. The following are only a few of the best known quotations: a little learning is a dangerous thing; to err is human; for fools rush in where angels fear to tread; and at every word a reputation dies (Kunin, 1996). Many phraseological units come from William Shakespeare: brevity is the soul of wit (Hamlet, 2.2.90); breathe life into a stone (All’s Well That Ends Well, 2.1.73); heart on my sleeve (Othello, 1.1. 64); in my mind's eye (Hamlet, 1.1.186); and the milk of human kindness (Macbeth, 1.5.17).

Phraseological units containing certain names: according to Cocker refers to Mr. Cocker who wrote a mathematics textbook that was popular in British schools. Anything described as according to Cocker means ‘right and correct in all areas.’

• Phraseological units referring to rivalries: Most nations have love-and-hate relationships, and it is marked in the phraseological units. When the British use ‘Dutch’ in the phrases, the tone is either critical or sneering. A Dutch nightingale refers to a frog. To talk to someone like a Dutch uncle means ‘to reprimand and denigrate someone like a stern relative.’ A Dutch treat means ‘to pay for oneself,’ as one does when he or she goes Dutch. The exclamation I am a Dutchman shows a strong disbelief. The phraseological unit, Pardon my French, is used after some swearing or using offensive language which alludes to the fact that the British do not use bad language, but it is characteristic of the French. Another example is to take French leave which means ‘to go absent without leave or permission’ (Flavell & Flavell, 2003, pp.76-77).