4. Make up 5 general and 5 special questions to the text.

5. Write a compressed version of the text using the topical sentences.

Topical conversation

1. Speak on the role of the tribes in the formation of the ancient Russian state.

2. Speak about the importance of the development of handicraft industries.

Supplementary reading

Text 1

The Pyramids of Egypt

Read the text and speak on the information you get about the tombs of the ancient pharaohs.

The earliest written history of Egypt was probably put down more than six thousand years ago. Six thousand years. It is a long period of time for us to look back. The Egyptians saw the civilization of many nations rise up, progress, flourish, decay, and pass away.

Perhaps the first thing for a traveller making a Tour of the Nile Valley is to look for the pyramids - particularly the Pyramids of Giza. These tombs of the ancient pharaohs are built on the west bank of the Nile in the neighborhood of Memphis, the capital of an­cient Egypt. The construction of the pyramids began few thousands years ago. The first tomb of this kind was, according to tradition, erected by Imhotep.

The Pyramids of Giza are edifices of gigantic size. Never have monarches or conquerors since had such massive tombs. The largest of them all the Pyramid of Cheops, rises to a height of more than 150 metres. In ancient times - Cheops reigned over the country in the third millennium B.C. - it was probably higher than at present. Che­ops ordered a tomb to be built for himself when he ascended the throne. Its weight is tremendous, and it took about thirty years to complete the whole work. Thousands of men were employed at the construction site at a time.

Now, the question is what the object of all the immense labour and expense was. Was it to glorify the ambitious ruler? Or to make his name live for ever? The answer to this question is to be found in the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. Since very early times they believed man to be composed of body and spirit. They thought that the spirit could remain alive after physical death if the body was preserved. Thus every measure was taken to project the body from destruction. Of course it was only the mighty and the wealthy who could get stone tombs to be erected for their burials. The ordinary people were buried in pits dug in the sand.

Text 2

The Celts of Northern Europe (part 1)

Read the text. Write a brief summary of it.

Although from 500 B.C. the Celt controlled lost of northern Europe, they never formed a single nation. Every tribe had its own king and its own laws, and they joined together only if they were at­tacked by foreign enemies. For most of the time they lived peacefully on their separate lands, farming and caking things in metal. They were great lovers of poetry and art, as still are the Scots, Welsh and Irish who are descended from them.

The Celts were fierce and brave warriors whenever they had to fight. They fought with fast chariots, each drawn by two small horses and each carrying a driver and a fighter. The foot soldiers were armed with very long swords and spears. A Celtic army must have been a terrifying sight. The warriors often wore no clothes at all, but painted their bodies with blue woad. When the battle began, the charioteers galloped up and down, while warriors raised a frightening battle-cry, enough to make even the tough Roman soldiers tremble with fear. Then in wild disorder the Celts would start their attack. It took a very well-disciplined and brave army to resist them.

Sometimes Celtic tribes would leave their settlements and move in search of better lands to farm. Several tribes from France, whom we call Gauls, crossed the Alps about 400 B.C. into northern Italy.

The Celts of Northern Europe (part 2)

Read the text. Pick out all the points concerning the first Celtic settlers who came to Britain from northern France.

The chief countries where the Celts settled were France (which the Romans called Gaul) and Britain. The Romans were always afraid of sudden attacks by tribes of Gauls, especially on the road running along the south coast of France to Spain, along which there were many rich cities. So they decided that they would never be safe until they had conquered the whole of Gaul, and in 59 B.C. Julius Caesar led a large army against the Gauls and spent 7 years fighting before he had conquered them. He knew that Celts in Britain were helping Gauls, and he twice invaded Britain but did not have enough troops to be able to occupy it. So Britain remained free for another 100 years.

The first Celtic settlers came to Britain from northern France about 450 B.C. They quickly overran the native inhabitants and spread all over England as far as the Welsh and Scottish borders. Each tribe lived in its own part of the country under its own king.

One of the most powerful of these kings was Cymbeline, who ruled at Colchester for many years after Caesar's invasion. He lived in a great palace and used the beet which he had brought especially from Rome. He even minted coins for his people. He had a fleet of ships which traded with Gaul and Italy Shakespeare wrote a play about him.

When the Romans conquered Britain, many Celts fled to Iceland and Scotland. Although the Romance did reach the south of Scotland, they never conquered it, and they never crossed to Ireland. So, the Celts survived there unharmed for over 1.OOO years.

The Roman Empire in the 3d century A.D.

For 300 years there was peace in the Roman Empire. But towards the end of the 3d century A.D, two new enemies began to threaten the Romans - the Goths and the Parthians. The Goths came from south Germany and along the river Danube. Further east, beyond the river Tigris people called Parthians started to attack their neighbours.

The Roman Emperors did everything to hold off the attacks of the Goths and the Parthians. But the Roman Empire was too big, and Rome was too far away. It might take weeks for news of a Parthian invasion to reach the Emperor living in Rome and by the time he heard what happened, it was too late to do anything about it. So at last the Romans decided to divide the Empire into two -a Western and mainly Latin-speaking empire and an Eastern, Greek -speaking empire, with an emperor for each.But unfortunately the two emperors were always quarrelling. Also there was no great city like Rome to be the capital of the Eastern Empire.It locked as if the Roman Empire would come to an end.

Then after much fighting Constantine became sole ruler of the whole Empire and he soon restored peace and prosperity. He began to build a new city in the East to be the centre of the Greek-speaking half of the Empire, which was called Constantinople.

PART 2

Medieval history

Text 1

The first period of the middle ages

The first period of the Middle Ages lasted from the 5th to the 11th centuries. It was the period when the feudal system took shape in most European and Asian countries, when the two hostile classes the feudal lords and the serfs - came into being.

Under the feudal system most people worked on the land, which was the main source of wealth. But all the land belonged to the lords who forced the peasants to fulfil various duties.

Although the implements of labour were improved, agriculture was still quite backward and harvest yields were low. Natural economy was the predominant system in Western Europe. The serfs produced all. the necessaries of life. Merchants rarely came to the feudal estates. In Western Europe there were hardly any big towns; big cities with artisans and merchants remained only in Byzantium and countries of ' the East.

Throughout the first period of the Middle Ages the peasants fought against the introduction of serfdom and feudal oppression. They wanted to regain possession of their land and to restore the old communal system. In the Arab caliphate the working people's struggle against feudal oppression merged with the struggle of the subjugated nations against the conquerors. In the caliphate uprisings spread widely and lasted for many years.

In the first period of the Middle Ages Western Europe was divided into many small feudal states. Royal power was very weak. The class of feudal lords formed the feudal hierarchy. The landowners had wall fortified castles, their own armed forces and their own courts of justice. By these means they kept the people in domains in submission. The Church helped the feudal lords to oppress the people.

Strong central power existed in Byzantium and the Arab caliphate longer than in the West. But gradually the feudal lords became strong there as well. Imperial power in Byzantium grew much weaker and the Arab caliphate disintegrated.

Key words and expressions

hostile classes враждебные классы

a serf, serfdom крепостной, крепотсное право

the main sours of wealth основной источник

the implements of labour орудие труда

harvest yield урожай

feudal estates феодальные поместья

artisans and merchants ремесленники и купцы

natural economy натуральное хозяйство

Arab caliphate Арабский халифат

to subjugate nations покорять народы

uprising восстание

to keep the people in submission держать людей в повиновении

to disintegrate распадаться, разрушаться

Assignments