2. The problem of rendering prepositions and conjunctions

The same is true of prepositions and conjunctions. It is most important to remember that even such a "simple" conjunction as "and" has at least 10 different meanings; in different contexts it may correspond to the Russian "и" ("John and Mary"), "a" ("they stayed at home, and we left" - "они остались дома, а мы ушли"), "неужели" ("And you did it?" - "Неужели Вы это сделали ?"), etc.

Speaking of conjunctions, it should also be mentioned that besides their main function (connecting and introducing different clauses and parts of the sentence) they enter idiomatic constructions the meaning of which cannot be guessed: it should be known or looked up in the dictionary ("She is sixty if (she is) a day" - "Ей добрых шестьдесят лет" или "Ей не меньше шестидесяти лет" "if anything" - "если уж на то пошло, во всяком случае, как бы то ни было").

One and the same preposition is also translated differently in different constructions and contexts (see 17 meanings of the preposition "on", the same number of meanings of the preposition “of”, etc.).

3. The problem of rendering causative constructions

There are some other English constructions that are rather difficult: not so much for translation but for understanding (as soon as they are understood correctly they are translated according to the principles already discussed). First of all they are the so-called causative constructions having the general meaning of making somebody do something or causing some action, effect, etc. It is necessary to remember that besides the typical causative constructions with the verbs "to make", "to force", "to cause" and constructions with the verbs "to have" and "to get" ("to have somebody do something", "to get somebody to do something", "to have, get something done"), there exists another way of expressing this meaning:

to

Verb + smb + into + smth (or doing smth),

out of

as in "to talk somebody into (out of) something" - "уговорить (отговорить) кого-то делать что-то", "to laugh somebody out of a habit" - "отучить кого-то от привычки, посмеявшись над ней", e.g. "Managed herself to death, damn her." (J.Collier)- "Своим умением все организовывать довела себя до смерти, черт побери." The first verb in such constructions usually denotes the way, the manner in which some effect or action was caused.

4. The problem of rendering comparative constructions

Another type of constructions causing misunderstanding, comes close to comparative constructions: "as ... as ever", "as ... as any (or anything)", "as much as doing something", etc. These constructions do not contain any real comparison. The phrases "as ... as ever (any, anything)" denote the superlative degree of some quality or high intensity of some feeling or state: "it's as simple as anything" - "это же совсем просто". "Не will be as peeved as anything" - "Он будет страшно раздражен", etc. The phrases "not (or never) as much as doing something", "no more than", "much less" are used as emphatic means of expressing the idea that somebody cannot or does not want to do something, or never happened to do it.

Close to those pseudo-comparative constructions come phrases with the word "too", "cannot + be + too + Adj." or "cannot + Verb + too + Adv.". They are synonymous to the phrases "to be very + Adj." and "to do (smth) very + Adv": "One cannot be too careful" - "Нужно быть очень осторожным".

Generally speaking, translation of specifically English grammatical constructions consists of two stages: first it is necessary to understand their meaning and then find a corresponding way of expressing it in Russian. For the purpose of translation, grammar does not exist separately. It is not the grammatical form but the grammatical meaning that is of primary concern for a translator or an interpreter. A mistake in grammar (whether it is a misunderstood construction of SL or a wrong variant in TL) always tells on the sense and logic of the text. As soon as the sense and logic of a sentence stop to be transparent it is necessary to stop and look for a mistake in the translation.

Questions

1. What should the translation of English grammatical forms and constructions begin with?

2. If English articles have some additional meaning, what should their translation begin with?

3. What should the translation of prepositions and conjunctions begin with?

4. What are the functions of conjunctions?

5. If a conjunction is used in an idiomatic construction, how should a translator render its meaning?

6. What is the general meaning of causative constructions?

7. What is the structure of causative constructions which includes four elements?

8. What does the first verb in causative constructions which includes four elements denote?

9. What do any comparative constructions denote?

10. What phrases are used as emphatic means of expressing the idea that somebody cannot or does not want to do something, or never happened to do it

11. If there is a mistake in the sense and logic of the text, what should a translator do?

LECTURE 8 TRANSLATION OF NOTIONAL PARTS OF SPEECH

Plan

I. The problem of rendering notional parts of speech

1. Infinitive

2. Absolute constructions

As for the so-called notional parts of speech, they may differ in SL and TL in the set of syntactic functions that they fulfill in the sentence. That is why translation should always be based on a thorough syntactic analysis since it is not the grammatical form itself but rather its function in the sentence that predetermines the way of translation.

1. Infinitive. For example, before translating an infinitive it is necessary to state its role in the sentence - to see if it functions as a subject, object, attribute, or adverbial modifier, etc. If it is an adverbial modifier, it is essential to see its type - an adverbial modifier of purpose, of result, of attendant circumstances, etc. After this functional and semantic analysis it is possible to render the infinitive into Russian using any part of speech in the corresponding function (or changing the structure of the sentence in order to express the same idea according to the norms of TL).

It is impossible to warn a beginner against all possible difficulties. However, it seems reasonable to point out some English constructions that are most likely to cause trouble.

2. Absolute constructions. Most frequent among them are the so-called absolute constructions. There are two main difficulties in dealing with them: first of all they are not always easy to recognize and besides they do not correspond to any particular construction of the Russian language. Based on secondary predication, these constructions usually express some additional thought, something that happens in connection with the main action, but still "outside" it. Unlike subordinate clauses, absolute constructions are characterized by rather a vague semantic connection with the main body of the sentence. It is often hard to say if the construction indicates time or cause of the main action - it may indicate them indiscriminately. As a rule, constructions coming before the main body of the sentence have temporal, or causal, or conditional meaning; constructions coming after the main body express some attendant circumstances or serve as an adverbial modifier of manner.

They usually single out four structural types of absolute constructions: 1) nominative participial constructions - "...I got them to be quiet, when - enter Admiral Ass, in full regalia, epaulettes quivering with indignation." (Bel Kaufman); 2) nominative constructions without a participle - "And, chin on hand, he stared through his monocle into an empty cup" ((J.Galsworthy); 3) participial constructions without the subject - "Being liable himself to similar unlooked-for (неожиданный, непредвиденный) checks from Mrs. Chick, their little contests usually possessed a character of uncertainty that was very animating" (Ch.Dickens); 4) absolute constructions with the preposition "with" - "With renewed handshaking and messages to be delivered to Miss Lawson, we at last made our exit." (A.Christie). Knowing these structural types, it is easier to identify such a construction, and differentiate it from expanded secondary parts of the sentence.

There are four possibilities in translating absolute constructions, though they do not directly correspond to the four types of constructions themselves.

1. If the type of semantic connection between the absolute construction and the main body of the sentence is more or less definite, a subordinate clause may be used in translation: "...those things having been invariably found on Mr. Twain's person ... they felt compelled to give him a friendly admonition." (Mark Twain) - "...и так как вещи эти впоследствии неизменно обнаруживались у мистера Твена, ...они сочли своим долгом сделать ему дружеское внушение."

2. However, it is not always possible to choose the proper type of the subordinate clause: "Bessie and Abbot having retreated, Mrs. Reed ... thrust me back and locked me in, without further parley" (Ch.Bronte). Really, did she do it after Bessie and Abbot retreated or because they retreated? Evidently, both after and because she got rid of those women who were less cruel than she was. In Russian such an indiscriminate way of expressing time and cause in one subordinate clause is impossible, so other ways should be sought. The best way to combine these meanings is to use an adverbial-participial construction (деепричастный оборот): "Отослав Бесси и Эббот, миссис Рид снова затолкнула меня в комнату, не вступая больше ни в какие объяснения".

3. Being very close functionally to English absolute constructions, Russian adverbial-participial constructions are more limited in usage, since the action indicated by them should always be performed by the subject of the sentence, which is not necessarily the case with English absolute constructions. If neither a subordinate clause nor an adverbial-participial construction can be chosen for translation, an absolute construction can be rendered by a separate sentence or an independent clause joint by co-ordination: "Miss Arundell walked home, Bob trotting sedately at her heels..." (A.Christie) - "Мисс Арендэлл пошла домой, и Боб спокойно побежал за ней.".

4. Finally, an absolute construction can be translated with the help of a Russian prepositional phrase with the preposition "c": "Coffee-cup in hand, Mr. Scogan was standing in front of the ... bookshelf (A.Huxley) - "Мистер Скоуген с чашкой в руках стоял перед ... книжной полкой." It should be noted, however, that such phrases are practically never employed to translate English absolute constructions with the preposition "with".

Questions

1. What should the translation of English infinitive begin with?

2. When the function of the infinitive is determined, what way should a translator render it?

3. How many types of absolute constructions are mentioned in the lecture?

Name them.

5. How many possibilities in translating absolute constructions are recommended in the lecture?

6. Do the ways of translating absolute constructions correspond to four types of their constructions?

2. Practical assignments

PRACTICAL ASSIGMENT 1

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION

1. Name the indications of the nouns.

Our country, this country, many countries; each country; which country, whose country, any country, five countries, my country; these countries.

2. Translate the following combinations of words.

They study – their study; the use – we use; they state – their states.

3. Name the indications of the verbs.

1. He works – his work; they worked – their work; do the work – don’t work; will work – we work; my work – can work.

2. My study – I study; don’t study – her study; he studies – his study; will study – we study; the study – they study; you studied – your study.

The raw material bases – the country bases its economy.

Our lectures last … - the last lecture.

4. Translate the following sentences.

• These houses are high. This building houses several work shops.

• He heads our institute. The head of the institute lives in this street.

• Twelve states border on Russia. Under high temperature this substance transforms into the liquid state. They speak about the state of relations between these two countries. The state relations are friendly. It’s one party state.

5. Pay attention to the translation of the word “mark”.

• The teacher marked the examination papers.

• There were many marks. Such qualities mark a great scientist.

• The goods were marked “best quality”.

• The 20-th century was marked by great scientific discoveries.

• These recent achievements marked a new era in science.

6. Find the difference between the words which have the same spelling.

• We have the plans of all factories in this zone.

• Factories plan their work for a month, a year or for a five – year period.

• Light is a form of energy.

• Our classroom is light.

• Don’t light lamps at day time.

• There are several steps in front of the door.

• The old man stepped heavily.

• The steps are too high for a child.

VII. Read and translate the following sentences using the prepositions given in the brackets.

1. To read books … the friend. ( of, to, with, about)

2. A long letter … my sister. ( to, about, of )

3. To speak … the delegates ( about, to)

4. To go … the friend. (with, to)

VIII. Complete the sentences with the correct preposition.

1. We have classes from … eight o’clock … eleven.

2. They arrived … Monday.

3. They don’t start working … nine.

4. Do you like working … home?

5. What can you see … the picture?

6. Can you come … my office tomorrow?

7. I live … a quiet street.

8. It was stupid … you to ask that question.

9. It was a fault .. of my boss.

10. We’re terribly sorry … the noise we made last night.

11. I was furious … the proposals.

12. What are you nervous …. ?

13. He is not usually cruel …. animals.

14. Can you lend these notes … me?

15. I was delighted …. the presents I got.

IX. Translate the text. Keep in mind linguistic and extra linguistic difficulties of translation.

I AM THANKFULL….

…for the taxes that I pay because it means that I am employed.

… for the mess to clean after a party because it means that I yave been surrounded by friends.

… for the clothes that fit a little too snug because it means I have enough to eat.

… for a lawn that needs mowing, windows that need cleaning and gutters that need fixing because it means I have a home.

… for the spot I find at the far end of the parking lot because it means I am capable of walking.

… for the piles of laundry and ironing because it means I have clothes to wear.

… for weariness and aching muscles at the end of the day because it means I have been productive.

… for the alarm that goes off in the early morning hours because it means that I am alive.

… for getting too much e-mail because it lets me know I have friends who are thinking of me.

X. . Define the function of «s» in the following sentences. Translate them

1. His work’s interesting; 2. He works hard; 3. His seat’s next to me. 4.He usually seats still; 5. My place’s near his seat; 6. This building places not far from our house; 7. My friend’s son’s a doctor; 8. This scientist’s work is popular.

Functions of «s»

1. Plural form of nouns – classes; stops; boys; photos.

2. Possessive case of nouns – teacher’s bag; teachers’room.

3. Present Simple ( Indefinite )– 3d. person singular – she works, It works.

4. Short form of «is» - He’s a student , It’s simple.

PRACTICAL ASSIGMENT 2

TYPES OF CORRELATION BETWEEN WORDS IN SOURCE LANGUAGE AND TARGET LANGUAGE. CONTEXT AND ITS ROLE IN TRANSLATION.

1. Find out the meaning of the verb “ to get” in every sentence being guided by the context.