Вариант 4

№1 Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя инфинитивную конструкцию сложное дополнение (Complex Object) вместо придаточных дополнительных предложений или переделывая два предложения в одно. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. We know that Olga had requested a bishop and priests from Rome.

2. She expected that her brother would bring her a book.

3. The boy noticed a bird. It flew on to the bush near the window.

4. Napoleon ordered to blow up the Kremlin.

5. I heard that he entered the faculty of history.

6. I don’t like that you repeat this nonsense.

7. I felt that somebody touched me lightly on the shoulder.

№2 Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя инфинитивную конструкцию сложное подлежащее (Complex Subject). Переведите переделанные предложения на русский язык:

1. It appeared that the system was based on phases of the Moon.

2. It was supposed that the crops would be rich that year.

3. It was reported that five ships were missing after the battle.

4. It turned out that the language of the article was quite easy.

5. It seems that you don’t approve of the idea.

6. It is said that he is one of the most famous historians.

7. It was said that one of the most popular nightlife areas was around Tverskaya Street.

№3 Перепишите и переведите предложения на русский язык, подчеркните герундий и укажите его форму:

1. One such campaign claimed the life of the foremost Slavic druzhina leader, Svyatoslav I, who was renowned for having crushed the power of the Khazars on the Volga.

2. The tsar celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil’s Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow.

3. He believed that Japan was so weak to evict Russia military, so he proposed giving Russia control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea.

4. The Japanese attempted to block the entrance to port Arthur by sinking several cement filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port.

№4 Перепишите и расположите по порядку:

a) предложения с инфинитивной конструкцией сложное подлежащее (Complex Subject)

b) предложения с инфинитивной конструкцией сложное дополнение (Complex Object)

c) предложения с независимой причастной конструкцией (Absolute Participial Construction)

Подчеркните конструкции и переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. We know him to have established a school of his own.

2. It being still uncertain when and how the runes were invented, the runic script offers many problems to solve.

3. We knew nothing of the research work to be carried out next month.

4. This river is said suitable for navigation.

5. Then, with her heart beating fast, she went up and rang the bell.

6. The fire is supposed to start at night, but nobody noticed it.

7. The moonlit road was empty, with the cool wind blowing in their faces.

№5 Найдите ошибку в предложениях и исправьте ее (ошибка в использовании относительных местоимений). Перепишите исправленный вариант и переведите его на русский язык:

1. We live in the world what is changing all the time.

2. What was the name of the horse who won the race?

3. I don’t agree with whose you’ve just said.

4. What’s the best thing who has never happened to you?

5. The woman with which he fell in love left him after a month.

6. The sun whom is one of millions of stars in the universe provides us with heat and light.

7. Liz, that car had broken down, was in a very bad mood.

№6 Перепишите следующие предложения. Укажите в них зависимый и независимый причастный оборот и переведите их на русский язык.

1 Yet never were problems confronting the country so acute, with the electorate in fact divided on policy issues to a greater degree than for years past.

2 Dispossessed of their lands, the tribal people of America had lost their way of life.

3 Estimates of the number of Native Americans living in what is now the United States at the onset of European colonization range from two to 18 million, with most historians tending toward the lower figure.

4 While reading a book I came across several interesting expressions.

5 Not knowing where to go he turned to a passer by.

6 Leaders of the radical wing of the Republican Party planned to put Black southerners on an equal footing with Whites, but with White southern leaders resenting these efforts, antagonism and separate systems in the south: one for Negroes and one for Whites.

7 Having arrived two days before the conference he had a lot of time to see Edinburgh.

№7 Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в них герундиальный комплекс и переведите на русский язык.

1. We insisted on Peter's joining our team.

2. You did not mind my asking, did you?

3. Your reading so carelessly prevents your enjoying this poetry.

4. All that happened after their leaving the place.

5. There is still much to be done before our going home.

№8 Прочитайте и письменно переведите 1, 2, 3, 4 абзацы текста:

Paper

1) Paper is thin material used for writing upon, printing upon or packaging, produced by the amalgamation of fibers, typically vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by hydrogen bonding. While the fibers used are usually natural in origin, a wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, may be incorporated into paper as a way of imparting desirable physical properties. The most common source of these kinds of fibers is wood pulp from pulpwood trees, largely softwoods and hardwoods, such as spruce and aspen respectively. Other vegetable fiber materials including those of cotton, hemp, linen, and rice may be used.

2) The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC put a drain on the supply of papyrus.

3) Paper is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, as the first standard papermaking process was developed in China during the early 2nd century. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo, making them very heavy and awkward to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider.

4) While the Han Dynasty Chinese court official Cai Lun is widely regarded to have first invented the modern method of papermaking from wood pulp in 105 AD. Archeologically however, true paper without writing has been excavated in China dating to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han from the 2nd century BC, used for purposes of wrapping or padding protection for delicate bronze mirrors. Although paper used for writing became widespread by the 3rd century, paper continued to be used for wrapping and other purposes.

5) Toilet paper was used in China by at least the 6th century AD. Toilet paper continued to be a valued necessity in China, since it was during the Hongwu Emperor's reign in AD 1393 that the Bureau of Imperial Supplies manufactured 720,000 sheets of toilet paper for the entire court produced of the cheap rice-straw paper. For the emperor's family alone, 15,000 special sheets of paper were made, in light yellow tint and even perfumed.

6) During the Tang Dynasty paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. During the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape. During the Chinese Song Dynasty not only did the government produce the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote, but paper money bestowed as gifts to deserving government officials were wrapped in special paper envelopes.

7. In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayans no later than the 5th century AD. It was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today. The paper was thin and translucent, not like modern western paper, and thus only written on one side. Books were invented in India, of Palm leaves where we derive the name leaf for a sheet of a book. The first paper mill in Europe was in Spain in1120. Paper is recorded as being manufactured in both Italy and Germany by 1400, just about the time when the woodcut printmaking technique was transferred from fabric to paper.

№9 Прочитайте текст еще раз и ответьте на вопросы к нему:

1. What materials were used for writing before paper?

2. What was paper used for in China?

3. What for was paper used during the Tang and Song Dynasties?

4. What other peoples made paper?

№10 Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и выражений и составьте свои предложения с ними:

(1) был изобретен, (2) широко распространенный, (3) слишком дорогой,

(4) продолжает использоваться, (5) бумажные салфетки, (6) самый распространенный источник, (7) тяжелый и громоздкий, (8) бумажные деньги,

(9) процесс изготовления бумаги, (10) соответственно

№11 Заполните таблицу существительными, глаголами и прилагательными, где возможно:

глагол	существительное	прилагательное
to produce
		various
	desire
		inventive
to preserve
to differ	difference	different
	protection
to desire
	practice
to consider

№12 Найдите в тексте антонимы к следующим словам:

(1) modern, (2) expensive, (3) bought, (4) light, (5) qualities, (6) the last, (7) the same,

(8) metal, (9) handy, (10) together

Тексты для дополнительного чтения.

History of Japanese Marriage

During the age of aristocracy, "Muko-iri" was the common marriage system in Japan. A bridegroom would nightly visit his bride at her home. Only after the birth of a child or the loss of his parents would be the bride is accepted as the wife in the man's home. Among common people labour power was and essential factor to maintain a family. A bridegroom would live with his bride's family to offer his labour for a certain length of time. The practice remains today in the system of adoption by which a man becomes a member of another family by marriage.

With the rise of "Bushi" warriors, the system of women marrying into men's families called "Yome-iri" was gradually adopted and widely accepted in the 14th century and on. Under the feudal system marriages were often used as political and diplomatic approaches to maintaining peace and unity among feudal lords. Thus the personal will of men and women for marriage was ignored in the face of family interests and the social intercourse of unmarried persons was denied. Marriages came to be arranged by and for families and the role of "Nakodo" go-between became very important in Japan. Now this "Yome-iri" system is quite common in Japan and you can find the traditional procedure in the contemporary marriage.

Throughout history, Japanese marital systems had gone through many changes along with changes in Japanese social systems and conditions. The most important and historical change in the Japanese marital system was brought about through the rise of "bushi" warriors in the 13th and 14th centuries. The change from the age of aristocracy to the age of the shoguns led to a change from the old practice of "muko-iri" to the new practice of "yome-iri". That is, instead of the groom joining the bride's family ("muko-iri"), the bride would join the groom's family ("yome-iri") after the birth of a child or the loss of a parent.

Under the feudal system, Japanese marriages were often used as political and diplomatic means to maintain peace and unity among feudal lords. The young men and women of the day did not have a say in choosing their partners in marriage. Rather, a matchmaker would arrange marriages on behalf of both families. Thus, the role of a "nakodo" (a matchmaker) was established in Japan.

It is interesting to note that a young man had more say in choosing his own bride during the age of aristocracy. A young man would typically visit the young lady of his choice at her home. If the young woman's parents approve of their union, the young man would be invited to a ceremony termed "tokoro-arawashi" and offered "mochi" rice cakes. This ceremony was deemed to be the most important function in ancient weddings among aristocrats.

Similarly among the common people, a young man would visit the parents of the lady and asked her parents for her hands in marriage. Labour played an essential role in life of the common people. Labour practices vary from places. In certain areas of Japan, such as the Tohoku area in the north, a groom would live with his bride's family to offer his labour for a certain length of time. While in other parts of the country such as the Izu Islands, a wife would work for the family of her husband while her husband would offer his labour to her family. It is worth noting that such labour arrangement is still being practised to this day in marriages where the man is adopted into the family of the bride upon marriage. A third and more common family labour arrangement was for the groom and the bride to offer their labour to their respective families. In such a case, the husband would visit his wife nightly to maintain their union in marriage.

Match

A match is a consumable tool for lighting a fire under controlled circumstances on demand. Matches are readily available, being sold in tobacconists and other shops. Matches are rarely sold singly; they are sold in multiples, packaged in match boxes or matchbooks. A match is typically a wooden stick (usually sold in match boxes) or stiff paper stick (usually sold in matchbooks) coated at one end (the match head) with a material often containing the element phosphorus, which will ignite from the heat of friction if rubbed ("struck") against a suitable surface. There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface; and strike-anywhere matches, for which any sufficiently rough surface can be used.

The first "friction match" was invented by English chemist John Walker in 1827. Early work had been done by Robert Boyle in the 1680s with phosphorus and sulfur, but his efforts had not produced useful results. Walker discovered a mixture of antimony (III) sulfide, potassium chlorate, gum, and starch could be ignited by striking against any rough surface. Walker called the matches congreves, but the process was patented by Samuel Jones and the matches were sold as lucifers. The early matches had a number of problems - the flame was unsteady and the initial reaction was disconcertingly violent; additionally, the odor produced by the burning match was unpleasant. It is described as a firework odor. Despite these problems, the new matches were responsible for a marked increase in the number of smokers. Lucifers reportedly could ignite explosively, sometimes throwing sparks at a considerable distance.

In 1830, Frenchman Charles Sauria added white phosphorus to remove the odor. These new matches had to be kept in an airtight box but were popular. Unfortunately, those involved in the manufacture of the new matches were afflicted with phossy-jaw and other bone disorders, and there was enough white phosphorus in one pack to kill a person. There was a vociferous campaign to ban these matches once the dangers became known.

The noiseless match was invented in 1836 by the Hungarian János Irinyi, who was a student of chemistry. The early matches, including the Noiseless match, were dangerous to both the users and the people making them. This was due to the use of white phosphorus. The search for a replacement for white phosphorus led to what was known as the safety match. However, this term is now confusing as it covers both the modern safety match and the modern strike anywhere match.

Both of these types of matches were more expensive to make than white phosphorus-based matches, and customers continued to buy white-phosphorus based matches. Laws prohibiting the use of white phosphorus in matches generally had to be passed before these safer types of matches came into widespread usage.

The safety match was invented in 1844 by the Swede Gustaf Erik Pasch and was improved by John Edvard Lundström a decade later. Their safety is due to the separation of the combustible ingredients between the match head and a special striking surface, and the replacement of white phosphorus with red phosphorus. The striking surface is composed of powdered glass and red phosphorus, and the match head is composed of antimony (III) sulfide and potassium chlorate. The act of striking converts some of the red phosphorus to white by friction heat. The small amount of white phosphorus then ignites, and this starts the combustion of the match head.

Pirates of the Mediterranean

Before Pirates of the Caribbean, pirates patrolling the ancient waters of the Mediterranean took full advantage of the powerful trade routes of Greece, Egypt, and Rome. As soon as sea faring vessels made their way through the waters of the Mediterranean on newly established routes for trade and travel, the wealth and prosperity of ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, and Phoenicians began to blossom. With valuable goods, especially precious metals, being traded back and forth between kingdoms on a regular basis, the high seas were fertile grounds for pirates looking for control of these powerful trade routes.

One of the earliest indications of ancient piracy comes from an inscription on an Egyptian clay tablet from the 14th century B.C., detailing how pirates often attacked the waters off the coast of Egypt. Other evidence shows that pirates were not only renegades working solo or in gangs, but they were also wealthy individuals looking for a piece of the prosperous trade pie. In addition, pirates took the form of tyrannical rulers. Take the case of Polycrates. This tyrant seized the Greek island of Samos around 540 B.C. He was an oppressive and greedy despot, and was known to have used ships from Samos' own fleet in order to plunder other ships in the surrounding waters.

Ancient pirates didn't leave their dirty work in the Mediterranean waters, however. In addition to attacking and stealing from merchant ships, they were also known to attack cities with vulnerable ports as well. This sort of piracy and pillaging would continue well into Roman times, coming have a great affect on commerce in the Republic.

One might think that piracy would not be tolerated by such a powerhouse as Rome, especially with its powerful naval fleet and large port at Ostia. However, piracy was often not only endured, but it was even quietly encouraged by some unsavory Senators who appreciated the steady supply of slaves that came from plundered ships and ports. In addition, the highly profitable grain industry was in a constant state of upheaval thanks to the pirates, thus raising prices in Rome, and padding the noble pockets.

As a result of Rome's complacency where pirates were concerned, (that, and having overthrown the powerful kingdom of Carthage, annihilating their strong fleet of ships that fiercely protected the North African waters from pirates), piracy ran amok. Since Rome was less than willing to protect or support its provinces from pirates, the weaker cities around the Mediterranean were often forced to ally with pirate gangs, paying them tribute in exchange for keeping their cities and ports intact. This helped keep the pirates in business, allowing them to grow more powerful, sort of like a pirate mafia controlling their areas or "turf".

Viking Weapons and Warfare

The Vikings are known as great warriors. This reputation is based on what we known about their weapons and battle tactics – as Barry Ager explains. The Vikings were daring masters of the sea. Their swift wooden long ships, equipped with both sails and oars, enabled them to mount piratical raids on the coastal monasteries and settlements of the British Isles, Western Europe and beyond. The shallow draught of these ships meant that they were able to reach far inland by river and stream, striking and moving on before local forces could muster.

Well preserved remains of Viking ships, like those found at Oseberg and Gokstad in Norway and Skuldelev in Denmark, show they were clinker-built of overlapping planks and measured between about 17.5m and 36m in length. They were steered not by a rudder, but by a single oar mounted on the starboard side. A few late examples are said to have had iron-clad bows and sterns. An average speed of 10 to 11 knots could have been achieved, or perhaps rather more in short bursts. Crews of 25 to 60 men would have been common, seated on benches on open decks, although the largest ships could have carried as many as 100 or more. Packhorses and provisions would also be included if needed.

Fearsome figureheads would be raised at stem and stern as a sign of warlike intent, underlined by rows of shields mounted along the sides for defense or show. These could be removed while at sea. Raids in single ships were quite frequent and, before around 850, fleets rarely comprised more than 100 ships. Much larger fleets of 200 and upwards were recorded later, but it is difficult to know how accurate the reports were.

Actual sea-battles were rare, and even then were fought close to shore. Ships were roped together in lines to face an enemy fleet and showers of arrows and missiles would have been exchanged. Each side then resorted to hand-to-hand fighting as they attempted to board their opponents' ships. The warriors in the prow were specially selected for this task. The aim was not to destroy enemy craft, but to capture them if possible, as they represented a considerable investment in time, resources and labor.

The Viking Age saw major changes in the economy of Scandinavia. At the beginning of the Viking Age, few people in Scandinavia had any knowledge of coinage. Some foreign coins entered the region as a result of trading contacts both with Western Europe and the Islamic world to the east. However, except in major trading centers such as Hedeby and Ribe, in Denmark, the idea of coinage as such was unfamiliar. Coins were valued only for their weight in silver or gold, and circulated alongside many other forms of precious metal.

This is what is known as a bullion economy, in which the weight and the purity of the precious metal are what is important, not what form the metal takes. Far and away the most common metal in the economy was silver, although gold was also used. Silver circulated in the form of bars, or ingots, as well as in the form of jewellery and ornaments. Large pieces of jewellery were often chopped up into smaller pieces known as 'hack-silver' to make up the exact weight of silver required. Imported coins and fragments of coins were also used for the same purpose. Traders carried small scales which could measure weight very accurately, so it was possible to have a very precise system of trade and exchange even without a regular coinage.

Precious metals were also a symbol of wealth and power. Like many peoples throughout history, the Vikings demonstrated their wealth and status by wearing beautiful jewellery, or by having expensively ornamented weapons, which were their equivalents of the Armani suit or the Rolex watch of today. In many cases, imported coins were melted down as the raw material for arm-rings, neck-rings or brooches. In other cases, coins were even mounted as jewellery. The show of wealth was more important than the idea of a coin-based economy.

Использованная литература.

1. Березина О.А., Шпилюк Е.М. Английский язык для студентов университетов. Упражнения по грамматике-СПб: Издательство «Союз», 2002.

2. Бонди Е. А. Английский язык для студентов-историков. Москва, 2003.

3. Голицынский Ю. Грамматика. Сборник упражнений. С.-П., 2005.

4. Лариса Романова. Практическая грамматика английского языка. Айрис Пресс, Рольф, Москва, 2001.

5. Христорождественская Л. П. Английский язык. Практический курс. Часть 1, 2. Минск, 2004.

6. Христорождественская Л. П. Английский язык. Упражнения по грамматике. Минск, 2004.

7. Michael Duckworth, Kathy Gude. Countdown, Oxford, 1999.

8. Raymond Murphy. English grammar in use. Cambridge, 2004.

9. Bob Obee, Virginia Evans. Express Publishing, 2003.

10. Wikipedia. Free Encyclopedia.

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