29. Stylistic functions of the words with no lexico-stylistic paradigm

They are characterized by:

a) direct reference to the denoted object;

b) absence of subjective connotations;

c) strict referential borders;

d) lack of synonyms or purely denotative synonymy(лінгвістика-мовознавство).

e) lack of antonyms.

To this group we refer terms nomenclature words, historical words, exotic words, and lexical neologisms.

Terms are words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions in which essential properties of the object or phenomenon are reflected. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and, therefore, with a set of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science or humanities. For example, language and speech may be used as synonyms in everyday usage, but in de Saussure's theory, they are opposed to each other as terms.

Nomenclature words are very close to terms: they refer to a definite branch of human activity, mainly professional, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements, types of cars etc.

Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past.

Exotic words denote notions and objects unknown or rarely met in the given language community.

Lexical neologisms are new (or old) words denoting new notions (see p. 16).

All the words mentioned above, being used in special texts, have no stylistic functions: their usage is determined by their nominative function, i.e. to define the denotatum. In fiction, they may acquire connotative meaning due to their syntagmatic relations with both stylistically marked and neutral words. For example, in Live with Lightning, Say No to Death, The Citadel, Airport, they are used to create the life-like atmosphere of a laboratory, hospital etc. When used in monologues or dialogues, terms become a means of the speech characterisation. Sometimes, while incompatible with their context, terms may be used to create a satirical or humorous effect.

30. Stylistic usage of phraseology.

The question of the status of phraseological units (PhU) is very complicated. There are many phraseological units which are quite neutral: in fact, in turn, for instance, in order that, in principle. To this group we should also refer historical PhU: the secular arm, the Blue and the Grey, the common beam: lexical neologisms: oil crisis, energy crisis; and terminological PhU: supersentencial units, expressive means etc.

Additional (connotative) information of PhU, as that of any word, may be of four types: functional-stylistic, emotional, evaluative, and expressive-figurative.

Accordingly, PhU may be divided into two similar classes: PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm and those having no lexico-stylistic paradigms.

PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm also fall into literary (be in accord with somebody play upon advantage, most and least, bring to mould; ad ovo, ad hoc, a la carte; a heart of oak, Achilles heel) and conversational ones (Adams ale, slit the bat, ask me another, monkey's allowance, to get on the ball, admiral of the red, grab for altitude, get the bird, sell one's back, get the wind up, a bit of jam, get somebody on his ears).

Peculiar stylistic usage of PhU is accounted for the possibility of their structural and contextual transformations which are oriented to achieving a definite stylistic effect.

Structural transformation – changes in the structure or components of a phraseological unit accompanied by complete or partial change in the meaning of a set expression. Structural transformations of PhU may be represented by:

1. expansion of PhU – adding/inserting new elements to a PhU and thus making the phrase more concrete and more vivid, e.g. When you had a weak case and knew it, Alan thought, even straws should be grasped at firmly (from to catch at a straw);

2. reduction of PhU is the result of the compression of proverbs, sayings, quotations etc in speech, e.g. Howaden added severely: "Better too much too early than too little too late" (from better late than never);

3. inversion of the components of PhU implies the change of the PhU structure and partial reinterpretation of the elements while preserving its original components, e.g. Fortunately it's only the cat's head and we still have a firm grip on the body (from to let the cat out of the bag);

4. change of components – is replacement of a regular component of a PhU by another element, which can by synonymic or antonymic to the former, either having or not having thematic connections with it. It may be accompanied by the structural change.

Contextual transposition of PhU – preserving its integrity and components, a PhU undergoes complete change/reinterpretation of the meaning, which most frequently is realisation of its literal meaning. It presupposes that a PhU may be totally reconsidered and reinterpreted in context, e.g. Pooh goes visiting and gets into a tight place (from to be in a tight comer).