- •Предисловие
- •Unit I State Structure of the Republic of Belarus
- •Vocabulary
- •The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Discussion
- •Grammar Practice The Adjective. Degrees of Comparison
- •Articles
- •The Verb. Types of Questions
- •Tenses in the Active Voice
- •Modal Verbs
- •The President
- •The Leguslative and Executive Branches
- •Legal System of Belarus
- •Judicial Power
- •External Policy of the Republic of Belarus
- •Revision Translation
- •Unit II State Structure of the United Kingdom
- •Vocabulary
- •The Constitutional Monarchy
- •Legislature
- •Parliament
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Verb noun(agent) noun(concept)
- •English Laws
- •Discussion
- •Grammar Practice Tenses in the Active Voice
- •Types of questions. Degrees of comparison. Articles.
- •Limitations on the Lords
- •The Queen
- •Electoral System
- •Political Party System
- •Revision translation
- •Unit III State Structure of the usa
- •Vocabulary
- •The Constitution of the usa
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Discussion
- •1. The Declaration of Independence:
- •2. The Bill of Rights:
- •The Constitution:
- •Grammar Practice Articles
- •The Passive Voice
- •Modal Verbs
- •The Sequence of Tenses
- •Congress
- •The Senate
- •The House of Representatives
- •Department of Justice
- •Political Parties
- •Revision translation Правовая система сша
- •Unit IV Legal Profession
- •Vocabulary
- •Legal Profession in Great Britain
- •Word Practice
- •Verb noun (agent) noun (concept)
- •Discussion
- •Grammar practice The Infinitive
- •The Infinitive Constructions
- •Prepositions
- •Modal Verbs
- •Legal Profession in the United States
- •Judges Nomination
- •Judicial Independence
- •The United States Sheriffs’ Work
- •Revision translation Профессия юриста в Великобритании
- •Vocabulary
- •Vocabulary Notes:
- •You should Know Law
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Verb noun (agent) noun (concept)
- •Discussion
- •1. Law is the highest achievement of civilization:
- •2. Functions of law:
- •3. The spheres of law:
- •Grammar Practice
- •Tenses in the Active and Passive Voice (Revision)
- •The Participle
- •The Participle Constructions
- •Sources of Law
- •Legal System of Great Britain
- •Ancient Laws
- •The Middle Ages Legislation
- •The Center of Government and Justice
- •Revision translation
- •Англо-саксонская правовая семья или семья общего права
- •Законодательство на территории Беларуси в Средние Века
- •Unit VI Crime
- •Vocabulary
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Discussion
- •Tom's Life of Crime
- •Inspector’s Investigation
- •Grammar Practice Prepositions
- •The Gerund
- •Defences
- •Juvenile Delinquency
- •Crime Prevention
- •Measures to Combat Terrorism
- •Computer Crime
- •Revision Translation
- •Unit VII Police Force
- •Vocabulary
- •The Work of the Police in Great Britain
- •Vocabulary Practice
- •Duties and functions of the police force:
- •Members of the police:
- •Grammar Practice Subjunctive Mood
- •The Police Mission
- •Points for Discussion:
- •The Metropolitan Police Force
- •Scotland Yard
- •Interpol
- •Police Force in the u.S.A.
- •Inspection Division
- •Revision Translation
- •Revision test (Units 1 – 3)
- •Inns of Court
- •Scottish Parliament
- •Vocation to Defend Man
- •Revision test (Units 4 – 7)
- •A Famous Russian Jurist
- •Supplement
- •1. English Alphabet and Sounds. Алфавит и звуки
- •2. Rules of reading. Произношение и чтение
- •3.Word Formation. Словообразование. Suffixes. Суффиксы
- •4.The Noun. The Category of number. Множественное число существительных
- •5. The Noun. The Category of Case. Притяжательный падеж
- •6. The indefinite Article
- •7. The Definite Article (with Common Nouns)
- •8. Omission of the Article. Отсутствие артикля
- •9. The Degrees of Comparison (the adjective and the adverb). Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий
- •10.The Pronoun. Местоимения
- •11. The Cardinal and the Ordinal numerals. Количественные и порядковые числительные
- •12. The Structure of the Sentence. Порядок слов в английском повествовательном предложении
- •13. To be and to Have (Indefinite Tenses). Глаголы to be и to have во временах группы Indefinite
- •15. Types of Questions. Типы вопросительных предложений
- •16. A) The Tenses in the Active Voice Времена действительного залога
- •16. B) The Future–in–the Past. Будущее в прошедшем
- •17. The Constitution It is/was… that. Усилительная конструкция
- •18. The Passive Voice. Страдательный залог.
- •19. Modal Verbs. Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.
- •20. The Sequence of Tenses. Согласование времен.
- •22. The word One
- •23. The Participle. Причастие.
- •24. The Participial Constructions. Причастные обороты
- •25. The Gerund. Герундий.
- •26. The Gerundial. Герундиальный оборот
- •27. The Infinitive. Инфинитив
- •28. The Infinitive Constructions. Инфинитивные обороты
- •29. Subjunctive Mood. Сослагательное наклонение.
- •List of Irregular Verbs
- •List of Reference Books
Defences
If actus reus and mens rea have been proved, a defendant may still avoid guilt if he can show he has a defence – a reason the court should excuse his act. Different systems of law recognize different and usually limited sets of defences. For example, English law sometimes allows the defence of duress – being forced to commit a crime because of threats that you or someone else will be harmed if you don't. Duress may be used as a defence against the charge of murder as a secondary party (helping the murderer), but is not available if the defendant is charged as the principal murderer.
Another defence is that of insanity. In most countries a person cannot be found guilty of a crime if in a doctor's opinion he cannot have been responsible for his actions because of mental illness. But this defence requires careful proof. If it is proven the defendant will not be sent to a prison, but instead to a mental hospital.
It might be argued that a person is not responsible for his actions if he is intoxicated – drunk or under the influence of drugs. In fact, an intoxicated person may not even know what he is doing and thus lacks mens rea. However, in Britain and many other countries, there is a general principle that people who knowingly get themselves intoxicated must be held responsible for their acts. Consequently, intoxicated must be held responsible for their acts. Consequently, intoxication is not a defence.
Nearly every system of law recognizes the defence of self-defence. In English law, a defendant can avoid guilt for injuring someone if he can convince the court that the force he used was reasonable to protect himself in the circumstances. In some countries, shooting an unarmed burglar would be recognized as self-defence, but in other it might be considered unreasonable force.
The concept of defence should not be confused with that of mitigation – reasons your punishment should not be harsh. If a person has a defence, the court finds him not guilty. It is only after being found guilty that a defendant may try to mitigate his crimes by explaining the crime. In France, the defence of crime of passion is sometimes used to lessen the sentence: that your act was directly caused by the unreasonable behaviour of your lover.
Although most criminal laws in the world refer to acts of violence or theft, there are laws regulating almost every kind of human behaviour: for example, what we do with our land; what we say and write; how we run our businesses; even what we wear. Sometimes governments "create new crimes" by identifying a form of behaviour and passing a new law to deal with it. In most industrialized countries existing theft laws were not adequate to deal with computer crimes where complex kinds of information are stolen, altered or used to deceive others, and, thus, new laws have been passed.
Technical change is one reason criminal law is one of the fastest growing areas of the law. Another reason is that the number of crimes committed in some countries seem to be increasing rapidly — although sometimes it is not clear whether people are breaking the law more, being caught more, or reporting other people's crimes more. One more reason is that different societies — or perhaps it is different governments — continually review their ideas of what should and shouldn't be considered a crime.
Points for discussion:
The two important elements of a crime which the prosecution must prove.
The difference between a defence and mitigation.
Name and explain three defences.
"Criminals need help more than punishment."
Text C. Read the text and make up the plan for the discussion.